The spread of communism outside Europe and international relations

Answering the questions


The spread of communism outside Europe and international relations


Why did North Korea invade S. Korea and what did the USA do about it?

There are several factors that affected the North Korean invasion. I can start with the end of WW2, when the country became in North a Russian government and in the south an American government. Korea was a part of worries of the superpowers, exactly like Germany, Austria and later on Vietnam. Since no agreement has been done, the country remained divided in to parts along the 38th parallel and in 1949 the Russian and American troops withdrew, leaving the country in a desperate situation. One year later N. Korea invaded south.
The communist leader of north, called Kim 2 Sung may have been affected by a speech made by the American Secretary of State, Dean Acheson. The speech was about areas around the Pacific that USA intended to defend, but nothing was mentioned about S. Korea. Kim felt free to invade the southern part of the country. His decision was encouraged by the USSR, which provided N. Korea with military equipment. It is possible that the Russians supported the N. Koreans to test the willpower of the new president Truman and to strengthen their position in the Pacific. Not only the Russian aid helped a lot, but also the similar situation that was going on in China, which was facing Taiwan, determined Kim Sung to invade S. Korea.
USA considered this attack as a part of the communist expansion, so Truman was sure that American resistance would the greatest thing to do. He moved his troops from Japan, to S.Korea in order to support the southern part, not only economically as before but also with troops. This move happened before UN’s decision, but when North Korean refused to withdraw their troops from south, like UN ordered, the United Nations asked member states to support south. USSR, that was boycotting meetings in protest against UN refusal to allow Mao’s regime to be represented, was not present otherwise they would vetoed.
Anyhow, USA and fourteen other countries, under the command of MacArthur, were present in South in order to maintain peace and to resist communism.


What were the results of the war?

The war in Korea was the first direct conflict of the Cold War. The results in Korea itself were a disaster, a huge amount of people were killed and left homeless.
Both superpowers considered the results of the war on their own side. Truman thought that the world understood the American force and how they could contain communism. The United Nations was sure of the fact that the world had understood their authority and power, while USSR considered the UN as a tool of the capitalists.
A new American problem arose after the war, the problem was communist China, which had shown its performance and which was now considered as a superpower as well. The American fear was visible, their relations with China were now strained and the most obvious signs were the defensive agreements with Australia, New Zeeland, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines, which later joined in an organization called SEATO. It was quite obvious that USA wanted to encircle China with bases.
As a result of this war, both USA and USSR wanted to build up alliances in Asia and in Europe.


Why did Castro come to power and how were Cuba’s foreign relations affected?

To start with, the American influence in the country, which started back in 1898 when USA got rid of the Spanish control in Cuba. This influence became bigger and bigger throughout the years, American troops remained in the country to maintain stability and the American aid became so big that it was said that the US controlled the Cuban economy. Cuba reached a point when it was too dependent of the sugar export and when only a few countries bought their sugar.
Another factor that provoked the Cuban anger was the unemployment and the lack of a real political system. In 1952 Batista seized power illegally and his system was corrupt and brutal and there were no signs of a peaceful revolution. The people wanted a new system that everybody could take part of.
Castro wanted to evacuate the corruption and Batista and had plans that included social reforms.
At his first attempt to take over the control in Cuba, Castro failed and was imprisoned for two years. The second time he began a campaign of guerilla warfare and sabotage in the cities and 1959 Castro became leader. The relations between USA and Cuba worsened before Castro pronounced himself a communist but after Castro nationalized American owned estates and factories in Cuba. As Eisenhower threatened the import of sugar, USSR and Cuba signed a trade agreement, doing so the relations between USSR and Cuba improved. In 1961 USA broke all relations with Cuba, while USSR started to give the economical aid.
Because of the communism in Cuba, the country was expelled fro OAS, because they were suspicious towards the Cuban government, but simultaneously after the Cuban crises, the relation between USA and Cuba remained cool.


What caused the civil war in S. Vietnam and why did the USA get involved?

Firstly, one of the most important factors was the president of S. Vietnam itself. He lost popularity among the people because he was Catholic (and most of the people were Buddhists), something that gave the Buddhists a feeling of discrimination. According to the people, he was corrupt, under too much American influence and did not start any land reform, as the people, which were inspired by China and N. Korea, wished.
Another thing card in the game was the NLF (Vietminh was only a part of it). The NLF wanted to introduce reforms and to negotiate for a united Vietnam. Seeing that Diem, the leader of S. Vietnam could not cope with the situation, the Americans decided to increase it military presence in S. Vietnam. After failing in Cuba and N. Korea, they felt it necessary to increase their aid in Vietnam. In public USA said that the reason helping Vietnam is to protect the independence there, but in reality they considered Vietnam a part of the domino territory.




How did the Vietnam War develop and why did the Americans fail?

Because the Vietnam War was so long, many presidents ruled USA during the period of war, each with new and own policies.
Kennedy (61-63) wanted to withstand only the guerillas. 16000, equipment and choppers were sent as aid. He isolated the peasant population, in a campaign called Safe Village, and thought that through this method the guerillas would be left outside. This failed because the guerillas were peasants as well; they continued their fight inside the villages.
Johnson (63-69) thought that Vietcong were controlled by Minh, so he started to bomb N. Vietnam. More than 500 000 troops arrived in South.
At home, he had a lot of pressure, and when with an offensive the Vietcong succeeded to capture 80% of the towns and villages in the country, the situation seemed tough. He had no intention of withdrawing, but he did stop his bombing in North (68).
Nixon (69-74) knew that US population would not allow more troops in S. Vietnam. He came with a policy called Vietnamization, which would support S. Vietnam with arms and training for defense.
71’ half of the American troops withdrew and Nixon began to bomb N. Vietnam again, and Indochina as well.
He was under pressure of the world and under the own population. No one liked his chemical weapons, his heavy bombing etc.
In 73’ the Americans withdrew, it was impossible to defeat the Vietcong, also because they were fighting on own territory and because they had no uniforms, so the American soldiers could not see the difference. The aid of weapons from China, Russia, and N. Korea, combined with the Vietnamese nationalism made Vietcong undefeatable. As example, instead of taking care of the casualties caused during the US bombing, they replied with evacuations of cities and rebuilding factories outside the towns.


Who was Salvador Allente, how did he come to power and why was he overthrown?’


In 70, a Marxist doctor of medicine from a middle class background won the presidential election as a leader of the UP (Unidad Popular). He was the world’s first Marxist leader that was voted through democratic election.

He became elected also because of the failure of the leader before him, whose name was Frei. The election of Frei (64) brought luck in the beginning, he made several successes, he:
Decreased the inflation with 12%

The rich had to pay their taxes instead of evading them

360 000 new houses were built

The numbers of schools were doubled

Some limited land reforms were introduced

1200 private holdings which were run inefficiently were confiscated and given to landless peasants

The US admired him so much that, they gave him economic aid. 67’ his luck started to turn against him: (STILL TALKING ABOUT FREI)
The left thought his land reforms too cautious and wanted full nationalization of the copper industry (Chile’s most important export), whereas the right thought he had gone too far.
In 69’ there was a serious drought (torka), in which 30% of the harvest was lost, large quantities had to be imported, something that gave birth to inflation. He and the government shot down the mine strikes.

Allente inspired confidence (elegant and cultured) and thought that communism can be succeeded without a violent revolution.

Though when Allente came to power did many improvements for the Chilean economical, labor, medical and educational system, he started to face major problems. Some of them were:
Land distribution caused a fall in the agricultural production

Mainly because farmers whose land was due to be taken stopped sowing and often slaughtered their cattle, this caused food shortages and inflation.

Private investors were frightened off and the government became short of funds to carry out social reforms as fast as they planned.

Copper nationalization was disappointing:
Long strikes for higher wages took place, affecting the production a lot + world price of copper decreased suddenly with 30%

The US disapproved strongly of Allende’s policies and other S. American governments were nervous in case the Chileans tried to export their revolution


Next elections were due in September 76’. He did not seem to be able to stand, but no Marxist regime hade ever let itself be voted out of power.

The opposition feared that Allende was planning to change constitution, so the opposition groups drew together to take action before Allende did.
The right organized a massive strike and won support of the army + staged a military cup. This was organized by leading generals, with Pinochet as the head.

Left wing leaders were imprisoned and killed, Allente as well.
CIA, helped by the Brazilian government played a vital role in the preparations of the cup, since the both feared the spread of communism in Latin America.


The new Chilean government was soon provoked criticism from outside world for brutal treatment of political convicts.
The USA stopped their aid.
Pinochet regime had some economic successes by bringing down the inflation.
In 89’ he allowed presidential elections and in 90’ Aylwin was allowed to become president

Why did détente come about from the early 70’s?
How did arms race play a part of détente?

The both super powers became fearful of the results of a possible nuclear war, where in reality the actual winner could not be decided. The both sides were stimulated by the effects of the Vietnam War, but of course had their own reasons as well:

The USSR understood the expense of the nuclear catch up.
They needed to devote more attention and resources to the satellite states, which all were suffering economical problems.

Simultaneously, the relations between them and China were not of the best nature, they did not want to be left behind while the relations between USA and China improved.


The Americans understood that there must be a better way of coping with the communism. Some Congressmen talked about returning to the isolation again.

The Chinese were anxious about their isolation, American intensions in Vietnam and about the bad relations with USSR.


The nations of Western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war would broke out.
Brandt, chancellor of West Germany (69’) tried to improve relations with Eastern Europe through Ostpolitik.








How have relations between the USA and China been during the period of détente?

Since the Korean War, the relations between those two were negative. In 71’ the Chinese unexpectedly invited an American table tennis team to visit China, USA responded by calling off their veto of Chinese entry in the UN. (71’)
Still a problem in Taiwan









How have relations between the USSR and China been during the period of détente?

The relations were bead because the Chinese did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, particularly his belief in peaceful co existence and that it was possible to achieve communism by methods other than violent.
They accused USSR for braking Lenin’s rules in order to suit their own needs, in reward Russia decreased economic aid to China.

At the end of the 70’s, when the relations between USA and China improved, it seemed that both Russia and China were vying for American support against each other, for the leadership of world communism. The Chinese now demanded their territories back, with Russia took.

There were also disputes about backing Vietnam who attacked Manchuria.


In 84’ the Chinese set their grievances against USSR:

The presence of Russian troops in Afghanistan
Soviet backing off Vietnamese troops in Cambodia
The soviet troops build along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia and Manchuria.


Gorbachev decided to improve these relations. He:

Five year agreement on trade and cooperation was signed (July 85’)
Regular contact took place between the governments
Formal reconciliation took place in May 89’, when Gorbatchev visited Beijing
89’ Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia
How did international relations changed since the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe?

The cold war was over


In 90’ the Warsaw Pact and the NATO countries signed a treaty of no longer enemies and weapons would only be used al self defense.

New conflicts soon arose

Nationalism started to grow as a sign of communist grip under a long time. Czechoslovakia divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia

Conflicts between Azerbaijan and Armenia arose, because of territory
Yugoslavia divided into 5 separate states

As the states of Western Europe were moving closer to the European Community, those of Eastern Europe were breaking up into even smaller units.

Nuclear Weapon supervision

Countries considered as unstable or irresponsible governments might use the nuclear weapons. This is why supervision was needed over nuclear, biological and chemical weapons


Economical problems

E. Europe had now to learn hot to deal with the economy, from a command economy to a free market economy. They needed to plan their economy carefully with the help of Western Europe; otherwise stability would be hard to be created.

Nationalism and economic unrest could cause a write wing backlash, which could have been dangerous.

They were concerned about a possible income for Russia would have been the commerce with nuclear weapons with smaller countries.


The unification of Germany created some problems

The poles were afraid that the Germans would take back the area east of the river of Odder and Neisse.
Polish immigrants were seen as a problem.







Relations between the western allies.

Relations between Japan, USA, and Western Europe were good before they were united. They had the same aim: to withstand communism

USA, for example refused to provide troops for the UN peacekeeping forces, leaving Bosnia the burden to the other member states.



Post War Europe and Cold War

What happened at the Potsdam Conference and Yalta Conference? When did they take place and why where they important in a “cold war” context?


a)The Yalta Conference (Feb 45)

Was held in Russia, Crimea, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill were there. They should plan the post war time:

A new organization: to be called UN, should replace the failures of the League of Nations.

Germany was to be divided into zones. Russian, American and British (later French), while Berlin would be divided in the same way.

Austria was to be divided in the same way.

Free elections would be allowed in Eastern Europe

Stalin promised to join the war against Japan, if he received some territory of Manchuria and some land of Sakhalin Island

Their biggest problem was Poland:
When the Russians drove the Germans out of Poland, they set up a communist government in Lublin (even though the real Polish government was exiled in London).

At Yalta, they agreed that some of the London based government should be allowed to join the Lublin government, if the Russian in return would allowed to keep a strip of eastern Poland, which she annexed since 39’. Stalin demanded the whole German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. The west was not happy about this.
b) The Potsdam (July 45)

It revealed a distinct cooling off in relations. Stalin, Truman and Churchill were present. But Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee (the new British Labor Prime Minister, after election victory)

The war was over, but no agreement was reached about the long term of Germany.

Truman and Churchill were angry because the Russians occupied the area east of Odder and Neisse. The area was now ruled by pro communist Polish government. 5 millions Germans were expelled. This was not agreed at Yalta

Truman did not inform Stalin about the A bomb. 2 days after Potsdam, USA bombed Japan, the war ended quickly (10 August) without Russian aid, though the Russian declared war to Japan (8 August) and invaded Manchuria. They annexed southern part of Sakhalin, but they were not allowed in the occupation of Japan.


Why did a rift grow between East and West / Communist and Capitalist block?

The very first early rift came about when USSR created an A bomb for their own. This created a process which involved the following:
Whatever one side did was viewed by the other side as aggressive. For example Poland and Germany, which the superpowers argued about, and no permanent agreement could be reached.

Account for the main post war settlements








What various reasons may account for Europe becoming ideologically vulnerable at extremist at the end of WW2?




Explain the ideas of expansionism and containment in a clod war context.

The cold war was: instead of open fighting, the rival powers attacked each other with propaganda, economic measures and with a general policy of non- co-operation. The last mentioned meant that both superpowers gathered allies around them:
USSR: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (49). N. Korea became a communist government in 48, and in 49 Mao became a dictator in China.
USA: fostered Japan as an ally. Britain and 14 other European countries worked with USA as well. Also Turkey was given economic aid to build an anti communist protection.


What methods did the USSR and USA revert to in their expansionism and containment?

The USA’s actual policy was to withstand, in any situation and any time, the communism expansion. But sometimes, the USA called this in public as an independence protection.

Russia on the other hand, claimed that it suffered losses during the war, it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states and that these relations were important as self defense for the state. A good example is the polish territory during the Yalta and Potsdam conference. He claimed the soviet rule of the German area east of the rivers Odder and Neisse, only because this has always been a corridor for German attack against Russia.

The both powers, as I mentioned above, gathered allies, democratically or not. To attract countries on their side, the powers used the economy as key. They offered doctrines and help, that would firstly help those countries economically and in the same time gather the as allies. The Marshall Plane, the Truman Doctrine and the Cominform are good examples.

What was the Berlin Airlift and why did it come about?
It brought the Cold War to its first climax, this because of the disagreement over the treatment of Germany.

As agreed at Yalta and Potsdam, Germany and Berlin were each divided into four zones. While the west tried to do their best to organize economic and political recovery in their parts, Stalin determined to make Germany pay for everything they destroyed. He treated his zone as a satellite, draining its resources away to Russia.

Early in 48, because of the Marshall aid, they merged to form a single economic unit, something that was the opposite of the Russian situation in East Germany.

The west wanted to unite the whole country, but Stalin saw this as dangerous. He felt scared of the now merged German zone.

In 48 the west ended price controls in Berlin. USSR though that this was an impossible situation because they felt it impossible to have 2 different currencies in the same city + that the USSR was embarrassed of the big contrast between West and East Berlin.

The Russians closed all the road, rail and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany. The West was sure that if they would withdraw, the situation would end with a Russian attack in the West Berlin.

The west decided to fly the supplies in the area, and over the next 2 months 2 million tons supplies were given to the West Berliners to cope with the winter.

The Russians admitted failure by lifting the blockade (May 49)


The results of the affair:
It gave a psychological increase to the western powers, but it did worsen the relations with USSR a lot.

It caused the western powers to coordinate their defense by the formation of NATO

Since no compromises were made, Germany would remain divided for the foreseeable future.






How do the Korean War and the German question fit into the development of the Cold War?


In the both cases (and even several examples as Austria and Vietnam), the both superpowers came near each other to withstand the opposite power. In the case of Korea, the intervention was brutal and direct, but in the case of Germany the conflict was not directly.

The both powers wanted, trough the both examples, to tighten their grip in certain areas, attack each other with propaganda, economic measures and general policy of non co-operation.








What regional defense organizations came about to protect Western Europe?


NATO
(Militarily) was formed in April 49’. Its members would treat any attack of all the members as an own. This was a highly significant development: the Americans abandoned their policy of no entangling alliances and for the first time had pledged themselves in advance military action

Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plane ( mainly financial)
These can be counted as organizations that would defense Western Europe.




Problems with relations after WW2

What caused the Cold War? Which side is to blame?

a) Differences of principle.

The communists system: their ideas came from Marx.
The wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
The economy should be central planned and the interests and well-being of the working classes safeguarded by state social policies.

The capitalist system:
They wanted to operate on the basis of private ownership of a country’s wealth. The driving forces should be private enterprise in the pursuit of making profits and the preservation of the power of private wealth.

Ever since 1917, the capitalists were afraid of communism spread, which would end the private ownership, political power by the wealthy classes. An example of the capitalist fear was the Russian revolution. USA, Britain, France and Japan sent troops in order to protect the anti communists.


b) Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions

His aim was to take profit of the military situation, to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
As the Nazis collapsed they occupied territories of Romania, Poland and Finland. The west was alerted; they thought that this was intent of spreading communism over as much of the globe as possible.

d) US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet government

· During the war, Lend Lease took place. This was American aid to Russia during the war. This meant that Roosevelt trusted Stalin.
· After Roosevelt’s death (April 45), Truman that was suspicious toughened his attitude towards communism.
· A theory shows that Truman dropped the bomb over Japan, to show Russia what might have happened if they would go too far.
· Stalin suspected Truman for destroying communism.
· Stalin did not know about the existence of the A bomb, just shortly before its use in Japan.
· The west had the bomb and USSR did not.


Which side was to blame?


Orthodox view:
During the 50’s, mostly American historians blamed Stalin for the Cold War. The formation of NATO and the American entry in the Korean War were the west’s self-defense against communism aggression.


The revisionist view:
During the 70’s and 80’s some Americans historians argued that Stalin was not to be blamed. USSR suffered losses during the war and it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states. They even claimed that USA had to give more understanding to the USSR.
This view was affected by the Vietnam War, which made the people to reconsider the American attitude and to notice the hostility towards communism.

The post revisionist view
During the 80’s this view was put forward by some American historians. This is because they had accesses to new sources and archives that were not able before. They argued that the both sides have to be blamed for the Cold War.
They believed that:
USA: and its economic policies (Marshall Aid) were due to increase American influence in Europe.
USSR: Stalin had no long term plans of spreading communism but he was opportunist, who would take profit of every situation as possible.


Both powers created an atmosphere that was interpreted in two ways. What was claimed as necessary for self defense by one side was considered by the other side as evidence of aggressive intent.
War was avoided because the Americans were reluctant to use their bomb



What were the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan?



The Truman Doctrine

· The idea came from Greece, where communists wanted to overthrow the monarchy.
· British troops helped the Greeks (44’), and the west felt now the same about Eastern Europe.
· Ernest Bevin (British foreign minister announced march 47): the USA would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities and by outside pressures.
As a result: Greece and Turkey were helped. Turkey, which also seemed under threat, gained an aid of 60 million dollars.

· Truman Doctrine showed that USA had no intention of returning to their isolation, as after WW1. They would withstand communism all around the globe.

The Marshall Plane

· Announced in June 47’, was an economic extension of Truman Doctrine.
· American secretary of state, Marshall, produced his European Recovery Programme (ECR). He declared:
Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty and desperation throughout the world.

· One of his aims was to promote the economic recovery of Europe, to ensure American exports. But his main aim was political: if Western Europe had economic problems, it was more likely for the communists to gain control in those areas.
· By September 16 countries joined this.
· USSR considered the Marshal Plane as dollar imperialism, as a device for gaining control of Western Europe and also as for interfering in Eastern Europe. Even though the aid could have been given to the countries of Eastern Europe as well, USSR rejected the offer for Russia and its Satellite states + Czechoslovakia.
· The iron curtain seemed a reality.

What was the Cominform?

The Cominform

· Was the communist response ( September 47)
· Was done to draw together the European communist parties.
· All the satellites states were members+ Italian and French communist parties were represented.
· The aim of this was to tighten the Russian grip on the satellites.
· It was demanded to be Russian style communism. Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized.
· It was expected trade routs between the satellites states and all contacts with non-communist countries were discouraged. Yugoslavia objected and was expelled (48’), though it remained communist.
· Molotov Plan was introduced (49’) to offer Russian aid to the satellites
· Comecon was also set up in order to coordinate Russian economic policies.

Why could it be said that there was a thaw after 1953 in the Cold War and to what extent was there actually a thaw?
a) What were the first sign?
b) What concessions were made by Russians?
c) What was the signing of the Austrian State Treaty?


a) Reasons for the thaw

The death of Stalin

· Starting point of the thaw. New leaders such as Khrushchev wanted to improve relations with USA. By 53’ both USA and USSR had developed a hydrogen bomb, the two sides were so balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear war was to be avoided.

Khrushchev said in a famous speech in February 56’: There are only two ways, friends or enemies.
He even said that USSR had not given up the idea of communist dominated world; this would be achieved when the Western powers recognized the superiority of the Soviet economic system, not when they were defeated in war.

McCarthy discredited

It became clear that McCarthy was something of a fanatical, and when he began to accuse leading generals of having communist sympathies, he had gone too far. The Senate condemned him, and then Eisenhower announced that the American people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet people.











b) How did the thaw show itself?

The first signs:

The signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjon ended the Korean War (53’)
The end of the Indo-China War (54)

The Russian made important concessions in 55’

· Agreed to give up military bases in Finland.
· They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN
· The quarrel with Yugoslavia was healed by Khrushchev’s visit in Belgrade.
· The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states.

The signing of the Austrian Treaty (May 55’)

· Since 45’ the country was divided into four, with own government (because they were not treated as a defeated enemy)
· The Austrian power was limited and the situation was like the one in Germany.
· In 55’ the Austrians persuaded the USSR to be more cooperative. The USSR was also afraid of a merger between West Germany and West Austria.
· As a result, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent with her 1937 frontiers.
· Austria was: not to unite with Germany, had limited armed forces, had to remain neutral. This means that they could not join NATO or ECC.
· Austrian were unhappy because of the loss of the German speaking area of the South of Tyrol, which Italy was allowed to keep.

b) The thaw was only partial

· Khrushchev’s policy was a curious mixture that west had difficult to understand.
· He had no intention of relaxing its grip on the satellites states; a good example was Hungary (56).

· When the rising against communism occurred, it was crushed by Russian tanks. Sometimes it seemed that he wanted to see how far he could go before the stood him up:

The Warsaw Pact (55’) was signed between Russia. It was signed by USSR and her satellite states, shortly after West Germany was admitted in NATO. This pact was a mutual defense agreement which the west took as a gesture against West Germany’s membership of NATO.

The Russians continued to build up their nuclear armaments.

The situation in Berlin caused more tension

Most provocative of all was when Khrushchev installed Soviet missiles in Cuba, less the a hundred miles from American coast (62’)


The situation in Berlin

· In 58’ , perhaps of the USSR’s apparent lead in some areas of the nuclear arms race, Khrushchev announced that his country no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in West Berlin, but when the USA made it clear that they would do anything to withstand a possible attack, the USSR did not press the point.

· In 60’ USSR became angry when an American U2 spy plane was shot down in Russia. (The U2 incident). Eisenhower refused to apologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance flights.

· In 61’ USSR suggested to Kennedy, the withdrawal from Berlin. The USSR was embarrassed by the contrasts and by the large number of refugees escaping from East Germany (over 200 000/year, 3 million since 45’).
When Kennedy refused, the Berlin Wall was built in order to block the escape route.


What stances did not change during the thaw?



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