7. The Cold War: problems of international relations after the Second World War
Summary of events:
Relations between USSR and USA became so difficult that, although no actual fight was going on, the period after 1945 became the first phase of the Cold War, which continued in spite of the thaws, to the communism fall in 89’.
The cold war was: instead of open fighting, the rival powers attacked each other with propaganda, economic measures and with a general policy of non- co-operation.
Both superpowers gathered allies around them:
USSR: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (49). N. Korea became a communist government in 48, and in 49 Mao became a dictator in China.
USA: fostered Japan as an ally. Britain and 14 other European countries worked with USA as well. Also Turkey was given economic aid to build an anti communist protection.
Whatever one side did was viewed by the other side as aggressive. For example Poland and Germany, which the superpowers argued about, and no permanent agreement could be reached.
After Stalin’s death, new Russian leaders began to talk about a peaceful co-existence and a thaw was brought about. It was agreed to withdraw all the occupying troops from Austria (55), but the relations were not so good to allow agreement over Germany. Tensions mounted again over Vietnam and Cuban missiles.
7.1 What caused the Cold War?
a) Differences of principle.
The communists system: their ideas came from Marx.
The wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
The economy should be central planned and the interests and well-being of the working classes safeguarded by state social policies.
The capitalist system:
Wanted to operate on the basis of private ownership of a country’s wealth. The driving forces should be private enterprise in the pursuit of making profits and the preservation of the power of private wealth.
Ever since 1917, the capitalists were afraid of communism spread, which would end the private ownership, political power by the wealthy classes. An example of the capitalist fear was the Russian revolution. USA, Britain, France and Japan sent troops in order to protect the anti communists.
b) Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions
His aim was to take profit of the military situation, to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
As the Nazis collapsed they occupied territories of Romania, Poland and Finland. The west was alerted; they thought that this was intent of spreading communism over as much of the globe as possible.
b) US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet government
· During the war, Lend Lease took place. This was American aid to Russia during the war. This meant that Roosevelt trusted Stalin.
· After Roosevelt’s death (April 45), Truman that was suspicious toughened his attitude towards communism.
· A theory shows that Truman dropped the bomb over Japan, to show Russia what might have happened if they would go too far.
· Stalin suspected Truman for destroying communism.
· Stalin did not know about the existence of the A bomb, just shortly before its use in Japan.
· The west had the bomb and USSR did not.
c) So which side was to blame?
Orthodox view:
During the 50’s, mostly American historians blamed Stalin for the Cold War. The formation of NATO and the American entry in the Korean War were the west’s self-defense against communism aggression.
The revisionist view:
During the 70’s and 80’s some Americans historians argued that Stalin was not to be blamed. USSR suffered losses during the war and it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states. They even claimed that USA had to give more understanding to the USSR.
This view was affected by the Vietnam War, which made the people to reconsider the American attitude and to notice the hostility towards communism.
The post revisionist view
During the 80’s this view was put forward by some American historians. This is because they had accesses to new sources and archives that were not able before. They argued that the both sides have to be blamed for the Cold War.
They believed that:
USA: and its economic policies (Marshall Aid) were due to increase American influence in Europe.
USSR: Stalin had no long term plans of spreading communism but he was opportunist, who would take profit of every situation as possible.
Both powers created an atmosphere that was interpreted in two ways. What was claimed as necessary for self defense by one side was considered by the other side as evidence of aggressive intent.
War was avoided because the Americans were reluctant to use their bomb
7.2 How did the Cold War develop between 45 and 53?
a)The Yalta Conference (Feb 45)
Was held in Russia, Crimea, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill were there. They should plan the post war time:
A new organization: to be called UN, should replace the failures of the League of Nations.
Germany was to be divided into zones. Russian, American and British (later French), while Berlin would be divided in the same way.
Austria was to be divided in the same way.
Free elections would be allowed in Eastern Europe
Stalin promised to join the war against Japan, if he received some territory of Manchuria and some land of Sakhalin Island
Their biggest problem was Poland:
When the Russians drove the Germans out of Poland, they set up a communist government in Lublin (even though the real Polish government was exiled in London).
At Yalta, they agreed that some of the London based government should be allowed to join the Lublin government, if the Russian in return would allowed to keep a strip of eastern Poland, which she annexed since 39’. Stalin demanded the whole German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. The west was not happy about this.
b) The Potsdam (July 45)
It revealed a distinct cooling off in relations. Stalin, Truman and Churchill were present. But Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee (the new British Labor Prime Minister, after election victory)
The war was over, but no agreement was reached about the long term of Germany.
Truman and Churchill were angry because the Russians occupied the area east of Odder and Neisse. The area was now ruled by pro communist Polish government. 5 millions Germans were expelled. This was not agreed at Yalta
Truman did not inform Stalin about the A bomb. 2 days after Potsdam, USA bombed Japan, the war ended quickly (10 August) without Russian aid, though the Russian declared war to Japan (8 August) and invaded Manchuria. They annexed southern part of Sakhalin, but they were not allowed in the occupation of Japan.
d) Communism established in Eastern Europe
Establishment of communism in the East caused alarm in the west.
Months after Potsdam, USSR set pro communist government in Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania), in case of resistance opponents were imprisoned or killed.
In Hungary, free elections were allowed, but communists won only 20 %, but the majority of the cabinet after the elections were communists.
· In February 46’ Stalin frightened with a speech: communism and capitalists could never live peacefully together, and peace was inevitable until communism victory.
Churchill’s responded to all this in an own speech in Missouri (March 46): An iron curtain has descended across the continent. He said that he needed help by the Western powers to withstand the communist expansion, which Stalin cared on.
Stalin called Churchill as a WARMONGER.
e) The Russians continued to tighten their grip on eastern Europe
· By the end of 47’ every state in the East, with the exception of Czechoslovakia, had a fully communist government. Opponents were: expelled, arrested, executed and all political partied were dissolved. Free elections were rigged. All this took place under the eyes of the secret police and Russian troops.
· Only Yugoslavia did not follow the pattern. Tito has been legally elected in 45’. He won because he could he kicked out the Germans from the country, and this is why Stalin could not demand anything from him.
· West was irritated by Russia’s attitude because they disregarded the free elections in the East as they said at Yalta.
· West was not surprised also because in 44’ Churchill agreed with Stalin that much of Eastern Europe would be a Russian sphere of influence. Stalin could argue friendly governments in the neighboring states were necessary for self defense and that these countries have not had democratic governments anyway, so communism would only help them.
· It was not Stalin’s methods of gaining power that upset the West, and they had major results.
e) The Truman Doctrine
· The idea came from Greece, where communists wanted to overthrow the monarchy.
· British troops helped the Greeks (44’), and the west felt now the same about Eastern Europe.
· Ernest Bevin (British foreign minister announced march 47): the USA would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities and by outside pressures.
As a result: Greece and Turkey were helped. Turkey, which also seemed under threat, gained an aid of 60 million dollars.
· Truman Doctrine showed that USA had no intention of returning to their isolation, as after WW1. They would withstand communism all around the globe.
f)The Marshall Plane
· Announced in June 47’, was an economic extension of Truman Doctrine.
· American secretary of state, Marshall, produced his European Recovery Programme (ECR). He declared:
Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty and desperation throughout the world.
· One of his aims was to promote the economic recovery of Europe, to ensure American exports. But his main aim was political: if Western Europe had economic problems, it was more likely for the communists to gain control in those areas.
· By September 16 countries joined this.
· USSR considered the Marshal Plane as a dollar imperialism, as a device for gaining control of Western Europe and also as for interfering in Eastern Europe. Even though the aid could have been given to the countries of Eastern Europe as well, USSR rejected the offer for Russia and its Satellite states + Czechoslovakia.
· The iron curtain seemed a reality.
f) The Cominform
· Was the communist response ( September 47)
· Was done to draw together the European communist parties.
· All the satellites states were members+ Italian and French communist parties were represented.
· The aim of this was to tighten the Russian grip on the satellites.
· It was demanded to be Russian style communism. Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized.
· It was expected trade routs between the satellites states and all contacts with non-communist countries were discouraged. Yugoslavia objected and was expelled (48’), though it remained communist.
· Molotov Plan was introduced (49’) to offer Russian aid to the satellites
· Comecon was also set up in order to coordinate Russian economic policies.
g) The communist takeover of Czechoslovakia (Feb 48’)
Was a great blow for the west, because it was the last non communist country in the east. They hoped that the country would remain as a bridge between eats and west.
Elections were to be held in May. The candidates were President Benes, Foreign minister Masaryk and the communist Prime Minister Gottwald.
It was obvious that the communists would lose ground because they rejected the Marshall aid, which might have been the solution for the hunger.
Before the elections the communists killed Masaryk and from a strange reason Benes resigned and Gottwald became president.
The western powers and the UN protested but could not do anything because they could not prove the real truth.
The iron curtain was now complete
h) The Berlin blockade and airlift (June 48’-May 49’)
Brought the Cold War to its first climax, this because of the disagreement over the treatment of Germany.
As agreed at Yalta and Potsdam, Germany and Berlin were each divided into four zones. While the west tried to do their best to organize economic and political recovery in their parts, Stalin determined to make Germany pay for everything they destroyed. He treated his zone as a satellite, draining its resources away to Russia.
Early in 48, because of the Marshall aid, they merged to form a single economic unit, something that was the opposite of the Russian situation in East Germany.
The west wanted to unite the whole country, but Stalin saw this as dangerous. He felt scared of the now merged German zone.
In 48 the west ended price controls in Berlin. USSR though that this was an impossible situation because they felt it impossible to have 2 different currencies in the same city + that the USSR was ashamed of the big contrast between West and East Berlin.
The Russians closed all the road, rail and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany. The West was sure that if they would withdraw, the situation would end with a Russian attack in the West Berlin.
The west decided to fly the supplies in the area, and over the next 2 months 2 million tons supplies were given to the West Berliners to cope with the winter.
The Russians admitted failure by lifting the blockade (May 49)
The results of the affair:
It gave a psychological increase to the western powers, but it did worsen the relations with USSR a lot.
It caused the western powers to coordinate their defense by the formation of NATO
Since no compromises were made, Germany would remain divided for the foreseeable future.
i) NATO formed
NATO was formed in April 49’.
Its members would treat any attack of all the members as an own.
This was a highly significant development: the Americans abandoned their policy of no entangling alliances and for the first time had pledged themselves in advance military action.
Stalin took this as a challenge and tensions remained high
j) The 2 Germanies
Sine there was no sign of agreement the west set up, German Federal Republic or West Germany (August 49’).
Elections were held and Adenhauer became its first chancellor.
The Russians replied (September 49’): called their area as German Democratic Republic or East Germany.
k)More nuclear weapons
In September 49’ it became known that USSR had an A bomb of their own and arms race developed.
Truman responded by giving instructions of producing a hydrogen bomb, stronger than any
Not only Russia made the US worried. In 49’ a communist government was proclaimed in China.
Mao hade defeated Chianng Kai Shek, the nationalist leader that was supported by the US, and who was now forced to flee the country.
· February 50’ China signed a treaty of alliance with USSR, something that threatened the US even more.
· In this anxiety the tensions moved to Korea.
7.3 To what extent was there a thaw after 1953?
a) Reasons for the thaw
The death of Stalin
· Starting point of the thaw. New leaders such as Khrushchev wanted to improve relations with USA. By 53’ both USA and USSR had developed a hydrogen bomb, the two sides were so balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear war was to be avoided.
Khrushchev said in a famous speech in February 56’: There are only two ways, friends or enemies.
He even said that USSR had not given up the idea of communist dominated world; this would be achieved when the Western powers recognized the superiority of the Soviet economic system, not when they were defeated in war.
McCarthy discredited
It became clear that McCarthy was something of a fanatical, and when he began to accuse leading generals of having communist sympathies, he had gone too far. The Senate condemned him, and then Eisenhower announced that the American people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet people.
b) How did the thaw show itself?
The first signs:
The signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjon ended the Korean War (53’)
The end of the Indo-China War (54)
The Russian made important concessions in 55’
· Agreed to give up military bases in Finland.
· They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN
· The quarrel with Yugoslavia was healed by Khrushchev’s visit in Belgrade.
· The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states.
The signing of the Austrian Treaty (May 55’)
· Since 45’ the country was divided into four, with own government (because they were not treated as a defeated enemy)
· The Austrian power was limited and the situation was like the one in Germany.
· In 55’ the Austrians persuaded the USSR to be more cooperative. The USSR was also afraid of a merger between West Germany and West Austria.
· As a result, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent with her 1937 frontiers.
· Austria was: not to unite with Germany, had limited armed forces, had to remain neutral. This means that they could not join NATO or ECC.
· Austrian were unhappy because of the loss of the German speaking area of the South of Tyrol, which Italy was allowed to keep.
b) The thaw was only partial
· Khrushchev’s policy was a curious mixture that west had difficult to understand.
· He had no intention of relaxing its grip on the satellites states; a good example was Hungary (56).
· When the rising against communism occurred, it was crushed by Russian tanks. Sometimes it seemed that he wanted to see how far he could go before the stood him up:
The Warsaw Pact (55’) was signed between Russia. It was signed by USSR and her satellite states, shortly after West Germany was admitted in NATO. This pact was a mutual defense agreement which the west took as a gesture against West Germany’s membership of NATO.
The Russians continued to build up their nuclear armaments.
The situation in Berlin caused more tension
Most provocative of all was when Khrushchev installed Soviet missiles in Cuba, less the a hundred miles from American coast (62’)
The situation in Berlin
· In 58’ , perhaps of the USSR’s apparent lead in some areas of the nuclear arms race, Khrushchev announced that his country no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in West Berlin, but when the USA made it clear that they would do anything to withstand a possible attack, the USSR did not press the point.
· In 60’ USSR became angry when an American U2 spy plane was shot down in Russia. (The U2 incident). Eisenhower refused to apologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance flights.
· In 61’ USSR suggested to Kennedy, the withdrawal from Berlin. The USSR was embarrassed by the contrasts and by the large number of refugees escaping from East Germany (over 200 000/year, 3 million since 45’).
When Kennedy refused, the Berlin Wall was built in order to block the escape route.
7.4 The nuclear arms race and the Cuban missile crisis (62’)
a) The arms race began to accelerate
· The race began after USSR had an A bomb of their own
· Since USA already had one; the USSR had to catch up.
· When USA made a hydrogen bomb (end of 52’), the Russians did the same the following year
· USA remained in the lead until USSR took the lead (August 57), when they produced a new weapon:
This was The Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (IBCM), which was powerful nuclear weapon that could reach USA from inside USSR.
The American response was ATLAS (also an IBCM), and soon hade even more then USSR!
Americans even built missiles with shorter range, that could reach Russia from Europe and Turkey, they were called Jupiters and Thors.
· When USSR successfully launched the world’s first satellite (Sputnik 1, 58’) , the USA had to compete. Within a few moths they launched an own satellite.
b) The Cuban Missile Crisis (62’)
· Cuba became involved in the Cold War (59’) when Castro seized the power from the corrupt, American backed Batista, outraged the USA by nationalizing American owned estates and factories.
· As Cuban relation with USA worsened, the ones with Russia improved
· Later (not directly), USA broke off all diplomatic relations with Cuba, and USSR increased their economical aid in Cuba.
· The Bay of Pigs attack (April 61’), was an approved plan (approved by Kennedy) to attack Cuba from American bases in Guatemala. CIA was heavily involved.
Castro defeated the 1400 men-attack, and right after Castro announced that he was a Marxist.
· USSR decided to set up nuclear missiles in Cuba, something that put all the east American cities under threat. This was something risky, but why did he take such a decision?
The Russian lost lead in the IBCMs; this was a way of seizing power back.
Since the USA had missiles pointing at USSR in Turkey, USSR wanted the Americans to understand how such a think felt like.
It was a Gesture of solidarity towards Cuba, which have been under American threat.
It would test Kennedy’s attitude
He might have used the missiles, to force USA to withdraw their missiles in Turkey and the western powers from Berlin.
· Kennedy did the following thing:
Alerted American troops
Began a blockade to keep out ships that were bringing missiles to Cuba
Demanded the removal of US missiles in Turkey (but not publicly)
· The results were:
Both sides thought that they achieved something and understood how easy an nuclear war could begin, may have produced relaxation in tensions.
· The powers created the Hot Line to allow consultations
· USA, Britain, and USSR signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (July 63’), this meant that the tests on nuclear weapons will only occur underground.
· Kennedy’s attitude has been criticized, some people claim that he could resist and push out the communism in Cuba.
c) The race continued into the 70’
· In public the USSR, they announced the Cuban Missiles Crises as a success, but in private they admitted that they failed.
· Removal of the missiles in Turkey did not mean anything because the USA had now:
Ballistic Missiles, or SLBMs (called for Poseidon and Polaris). These could be launched from the subs.
· As the USA did not have so much resources and time, because of the Vietnam, the USSR decided to catch up. Early 70’ they took the lead in the number of IBCMs and SLBMs.
They have even created a new weapon: The Anti Ballistic Missiles (ABMs), which could destroy enemy missiles before they reached their target. This was both offensive and defensive.
· American reply: Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRVs). They could carry out 14 different warheads; each one could be programmed to hit different targets.
· Russian reply to MIRVs: SS- 20 (77’), but carried only 3 warheads.
· At the end of the 70’, Americans created Cruise Missiles, which were based in Europe. These could flow under Russian radar, so they could pass by unnoticed.
· The main problem was: each side might be tempted to try to win a nuclear war by striking first or destroying all the weapons of the other side.
c) Protests against nuclear weapons
· In Britain, the Campaign of Nuclear Disarmament (CND, 58’), wanted the government to take the lead of the abandoning of the weapons.
· Mass demonstrations were held every year at Easter (March from London to Aldermaston). British government did not dare to take the risk, the unilateral disarmament would leave them as an offer for the USSR.
8. The spread of communism outside Europe and its effect on international relation
Summary of events
In 1921 in China that was encouraged by the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had been formed.
First, it cooperated with Kuomintang (KMT), the party that tried to govern China and to control the generals who were struggling among themselves for power. Later on, KMT gained control over a large area in China, and did not wish to share it with CCP. Civil war between KMT and CCP broke out.
The Japanese occupied Manchuria (31’) and invaded parts of China (37’). When WW2 ended, the Japanese were defeated and retired from China.
In China KMT’s leader Chiang Kai-shek, with American help still fought with CCP, that was under Mao. 49’ Mao triumphed and Chiang had to flee the country. China invaded Tibet (59’), which are still communists.
Communism gained a hold in Korea too, which was controlled by Japan since 1919. After the Japanese defeat, the country was divided into two parts. In 50’ communist N. Korea invaded S. Korea. UN (mostly Americans) moved in to help south. The war ended in 53, with a communist result.
In Cuba, Castro drove out the corrupt dictator Batista (59’). First Castro was not communist, but soon USA turned against him.
In Vietnam a similar situation like in Korea occurred. Vietnam won their freedom from France (54’), the country was temporarily divided into to, a communist North and an non communist South. When a rebellion broke out in the south against the corrupt government, North gave military assistance to the rebels.
The Americans became involved to stop the spread of communism. In 73’ USA withdrew and 75’ the whole country was under communist control. Some month later Cambodia and Laos turned communist as well.
In South America communism made little headway, except on Chile where in 70’ a Marxist government was democratically elected, with Allente as president. 73’ the government was overthrown and Allente killed.
Africa: strong Marxist connection in Mozambique (75) and Angola (76’).
During the second half of the 70’s a more consistent haw began, détente (a more permanent relaxation in tensions). There were some problems: Russian invasion of Afghanistan (79’), before Gorbatchev became president (85’), who was determined to end the Cold War.
8.1 War in Korea and its effects on international relations
a) Background of the war
Korea was under Japan since 10’, when the Japanese were defeated (august 45), USA and USSR divided the country along the 38th parallel.
Un wanted free elections, for whole country, and Americans agreed, because South Vietnam contained 2/3 of the population, so the communists would be outvoted. Elections were held, supervised by the UN, and South Korea was set up with Rhee as a president and its capital in Seoul (48’).
Following month, USSR, created North Korea, under the communist government of Kim Sung 2, with its capital at Pyongyang. .
49’ USSR and USA troops withdrew, leaving the both leaders with the belief that each of them had the right of taking control of the whole country. Without warning north invaded south.
b)Why did North Koreans invade the South?
· Kim Sung’s own idea encouraged by a speech of Acheson (American Secretary of State) that referred to the areas that the USA would defend and S. Korea was not included.
· Kim was encouraged by the Chinese attack in Taiwan, when they were about to attack KMT.
· Russians were responsible; they supplied them with armament and wanted to test Truman’s determination.
· Would compensate the failures in West Berlin
· Communists blamed S. Korea for crossing the 38th parallel.
d) The USA takes action
Truman saw the attack as a part of the communist spread, so he decided to support S. Korea.
American troops from Japan were ordered before UN took action.
UN warned North to withdraw, and when they ignored their warning UN asked member states to sent troops.
The decision was taken in the absence of USSR that was boycotting meetings in protest against UN refusal to allow Mao’s new Chinese regime to be represented, they would otherwise veto this decision.
USA + 14 other countries sent troops (majority were Americans), they were under the control of General MacArthur.
After enough difficulties with the communists, when UN and US succeeded to get rid of the communists in the South, Truman ordered an invasion of N. Korean, with UN approval to unite the country and hold free elections.
China warned to defeat the North if needed, so China attacked with 300 000 troops so by January 51’ they pushed the western powers out of the North and captured the south capital, Seol.
MacArthur wanted to resist communism and to bomb Manchuria, but Truman did not agree, so MacArthur was removed from his command
In June, the UN succeeded to push the communists out of the south, and in July 53’ an agreement was signed that the frontier should be along the 38th parallel.
e) The results of the war were wide-ranging
For Korea itself was a disaster; 4 million Korean soldiers and civilians were killed, 5 million people were left homeless and the decision seemed permanent.
Truman could take some satisfaction from having contained communism and could claim success.
Many republicans argued that Truman could actually destroy the communism and this feeling contributed to MacArthurism.
China could resist the USA, the superpower. China was now considered as a world power and the fact that China was still not allowed in the UN seemed even weirder.
The conflict brought a new dimension of the Cold War; American relations were strained with China and Russia.
The familiar pattern of both sides trying to build up alliances appeared in Asia as well as in Europe. China for example, tried to help Indo China and to improve relations with India and Burma (54’).
The Americans tried to encircle China with bases, in 51’ defensive agreements were signed with Australia and New Zeeland, in 54’ these three states joined together with Britain and France to form SEATO. USA was disappointed that only 3 Asian states joined: Pakistan, Afghanistan and the Philippines.
Relations between China and USA were also poor because the Americans defended KMT (with Chang), while the Chinese wanted to attack them in Taiwan and to dissolve the party for good.
8.2 Cuba
a) Why did Castro come to power?
There was a long standing resentment among many Cubans at the amount of American influence in the country:
Dated back in 1898, when the USA had helped Cuba to rescue Cuba from Spanish control.
Although the country remained independent, US troops were needed from time to time to maintain stability.
American aid and investment kept Cuban economy working. American companies held controlling interests in ALL Cuba industries, so the American ambassador in Havana became the second most important man in Cuba
Cuba was too dependent on the export of sugar and the wealth of the country was concentrated in the hands of a few.
· The unemployment was a serious problem; the poverty of the unemployment was in stark contrast to the wealth in Havana and in the hands corrupt government officials.
No affective political system had been developed
Batista, had been a leading politician since 33’, seized power illegally and began to rule as a dictator. He did not introduce reforms, he was corrupt, he did not spent enough time for government business and his system was brutal.
There was no prospect of a peaceful revolution
The feeling grew that a violent revolution was needed. Castro, a young lawyer from middle class background and which was nationalist rather than socialist wanted to get rid of Batista and its corruption. Castro wanted to make reforms so all the peasants would gain some land.
He tried to overthrow Batista (53’), but failed and was jailed for two years. Then he began a campaign of guerilla warfare and sabotages in the cities. The rebels soon controlled big areas, and carried out Castro’s reform policy.
Batista’s reaction played into Castro’s hands
Batista murdered and killed suspects of Castro. Many middle class people started to support Castro, also because they were tired of the brutal dictator. US started to feel embarrassment about Batista and cut all the supplies.
In September, Che Guevara and a group of rebellions got control of the main road across the island and prepared to move to Santa Clara.
Batista fled from Cuba (1st January 59’) and a liberal government was set up, with Castro as a leader.
b) How were Cuba’s foreign relations affected?
· Relations with US did not worsen directly, but when Castro nationalized all the American owned estates and factories, Eisenhower threatened to stop importing sugar, forcing Castro to sign an agreement with USSR.
· In July 60’ USSR promised to buy the Cuban sugar, US carried out their threat, and Castro confiscated all the remaining American properties. The relations with US got bad and the ones with USSR improved.
· US broke off all diplomatic relations with Cuba (January 61’), but the USSR already supplied them with aid.
· After the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missiles Crises the relations between USA and Cuba remained cool
· The other South American countries felt themselves threatened, so they expelled Cuba from the OAS (Organization of American States), (62’). This made Cuba more independent of USSR.
c) Castro and his problems
Cuba was too dependent of the USA, of the USSR and of the fluctuation in world sugar prices.
Castro improved a lot the situation in Cuba, he:
Collectivized farms
Factories and businesses were nationalized
Tried to improve the sugar production and increase output
To introduce new industries and reduce Cuba’s dependence on sugar
Social reform included to improve: education, housing, medical facilities and communications.
Equality for black people and rights for women was born
The cultural activities improved
By the end of 70’s children were now receiving education, hygiene and health care, unemployment and corruption reduced
The country became more stabile
· Castro seemed to be popular with the vast majority of people, but some failures DID exist. They were:
The attempt of being less independent of only one part of the industry and the agricultural production were not so successive.
So Cuba still depended of sugar industry and of USSR with its satellite states
80 the sugar and tobacco crop (bete av) were reduced by fungus infections, something that led to an economic crisis
Unemployment rose again, people began to move to USA
By 91’ when USSR split up, Cuba lost its most powerful supporter and became extremely isolated.
8.3 The wars in Vietnam, 46-54 and 61-75
Indo China (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam) was a part of the French empire in South East Asia and since the end of WW2 there were conflicts going on non stop.
In the first phase of the war people fought about independence from the French, the second phase began with the civil war in S. Vietnam (61-75) and the US intervened to stop the communist spread.
a) 1946 -1954
Indo China was occupied by the Japanese during the war, and Vietminh led by Minh tried to resist both the Japanese and the French.
The Vietminh was led by communists but was an alliance of all shades of political opinion which wanted to withstand foreign control.
1945 Vietminh declared Vietnam independent, but when the French refused to accept, Vietminh attacked the in Hanoi.
This struggle lasted for 8 years (ended in May 54) and ended with a victory of Vietminh, also because :
1. The French still suffered from the affects from the war and failed to send enough troops
2. The Chinese communist government supplied the rebels with arms and equipment
· Seeing this, US provided the French with support, but it was not enough
· The Geneva Agreement (54’), Laos and Cambodia became independent and Vietnam was temporarily divided in two parts, along the 17th parallel.
· In the north, Minh’s government was recognized, and in the south would have a separate government until the elections in 56’, when the country would have become united.
· The elections were never held, and the situation looked exactly like in Korea.
b) What caused the civil war in South Vietnam and why did the USA become involved?
The S. Vietnamese government under Diem (chosen by a referendum in 55’), refused to make preparations for the elections, for the whole country
Eisenhower (53-61) was worried about the spread of communism and about the Domino Theory.
Diem lost popularity because:
He was from a Christian family. This made the Buddhists in the area to feel discriminated.
They demanded a land reform, like in China and North Vietnam
His reputation was bad. He was thought to be corrupt and under too much American influence
In the South, in 1960 various opposition groups, which included many former communists from Vietminh, created the NLF (the national front of liberation). They demanded reforms and a united Vietnam.
Guerilla attack was started, attacking government buildings. Diem took the attack as a total communist attack and he introduced security measures, even though the communists represented only one section on the NLF.
Diem was killed in a cup (63’) after which the country was ruled by a succession of generals, the longest was Thieu (67’- 75’).
The removal of Diem did not change the basic situation and the guerilla warfare went on.
When the US understood that Diem was unable to cope with the situation that went on, they increased the military presence in the country.
Under Eisenhower, supported the S. Vietnamese regime with economic and military advisers since 54’ and accepted Diem’s claim that pointed out the communists as the only aggressor.
Having failed to defeat communism in North Korea and Cuba, the USA felt that a strong stand must be made. Both Kennedy and Johnson were prepared to intervene with more than only advisers.
The US said in public that they help S. Vietnam’s independence, but in reality it was just another of the blocks against communism.
US understood the guerillas (VIETCONG), were supported by North, and Minh said that only force can unite the divided country.
c) The Phases of the war
Kennedy (61-63)
Tried to keep American involvement down to anti guerilla campaign
He sent about 16 000 troops advisers + choppers and equipment
Introduced safe village policy, which would move the local peasants apart from the guerillas, but because the guerillas were most peasants, the policy became a failure. They continued to operate with the villages
Johnson (63-69)
He was not scared about the reports which showed that the guerillas and the NLF controlled less than a half of the South Vietnamese area.
Was sure that Minh was the leader of everything, so he decided to bomb North (65’)
Over half of million troops arrived in South, and despite this the Vietcong still managed to unleash an attack that took over 80% of all towns and villages.
This showed the hopelessness of the Americans, so Johnson was put under pressure and was said to withdraw. He stopped bombing North (march 68)
Nixon (69-74)
Since public opinion would not allow him more troops to Vietnam.
Nixon’s new idea was Vietnamization, the Americans would re arm and train South Vietnamese army, and to look after own defense. This would allow a gradual withdrawal of American troops (50% were sent home 71’)
He started to bomb North again and the Minh Trail (Laos and Cambodia, trough were supplies were brought in from North).
People at home did not agree because:
The terrible bombing of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia
The use of chemicals to destroy forests
The death of innocent lives
In 73’ the American troops withdrew, and the both parts would respect the old frontier. But already in 75 Saigon was occupied by North and Vietcong. Vietnam was now united under communist rule and Americans had to accept failure.
d) Why did the Americans fail?
1. NLF had spread widespread support among the ordinary people and the Americans ignored the rightness of the NLF, doing so they encouraged the spread of communism in the South.
2. The Vietcong were experts on Guerilla warfare and with no distinguished uniform they could penetrate among the peasants.
3. The Vietcong received aid from North Korea, China and Russia. The Russian aid after the 70’s was crucial.
4. The nationalism of the Vietcong was also important. For example instead of taking care of the casualties caused during the US bombing, they replied with evacuations of cities and rebuilding factories outside the towns.
e) the effects of the war were out ranging
Vietnam was united but the problem of reconstruction was enormous
Fir the Americans it was a blow of prestige + Watergate caused big effects on the American society. Future governments had to think twice before allowing the country in any similar situation.
It was a victory for the communist world, but did not make a big deal out of it, perhaps they wished to relax international tensions.
8.4 Chile under Salvador Allende 70-73
In 70 a Marxist doctor of medicine from a middle class background won the presidential election as a leader of the UP (Unidad Popular)
The world’s first Marxist leader that was voted through democratic election.
a) How did Allende come to be elected?
· There were three main parties in Chile:
The Unidad Popular (left)
The Christian Democrats (inclined left)
National Party (liberal/conservative coalition)
The election of Frei (64) brought luck in the beginning, he made several successes, he:
Decreased the inflation with 12%
The rich had to pay their taxes instead of evading them
360 000 new houses were built
The numbers of schools were doubled
Some limited land reforms were introduced
1200 private holdings which were run inefficiently were confiscated and given to landless peasants
The US admired him so much that, they gave him economic aid.
67’ his luck started to turn against him: (STILL TALKING ABOUT FREI)
The left thought his land reforms too cautious and wanted full nationalization of the copper industry (Chile’s most important export), whereas the right thought he had gone too far.
In 69’ there was a serious drought (torka), in which 30% of the harvest was lost, large quantities had to be imported, something that gave birth to inflation.
He and the government shot down the mine strikes.
Allende inspired confidence (elegant and cultured) and thought that communism can be succeeded without a violent revolution.
b) Allende’s problems and policies
The problems Allende was facing were huge:
Inflation was running over 30%
Unemployment at 20%
Industry was stagnating
90% of the population lived under such poverty that the children under 15 suffered from malnutrition.
Allende believed in:
He believed in redistribution of income, which would enable the poor to buy more and thereby to stimulate the economy.
All-round wages increases of about 40% were introduced and firms were not allowed to increase prices.
The remainder of the copper industry, textiles and banks were nationalized.
Frei’s land distribution speeded up
The army played its roll, by supporting the population
In foreign affairs, Allente restored relations with Cuba, China and East Germany.
b) Why was he overthrown?
Land distribution caused a fall in the agricultural production
Mainly because farmers whose land was due to be taken stopped sowing and often slaughtered their cattle, this caused food shortages and inflation.
Private investors were frightened off and the government became short of funds to carry out social reforms as fast as they planned.
Copper nationalization was disappointing:
Long strikes for higher wages took place, affecting the production a lot + world price of copper decreased suddenly with 30%
The US disapproved strongly of Allende’s policies and other S. American governments were nervous in case the Chileans tried to export their revolution
Next elections were due in September 76’. He did not seem to be able to stand, but no Marxist regime hade ever let itself be voted out of power.
The opposition feared that Allende was planning to change constitution, so the opposition groups drew together to take action before Allende did.
The right organized a massive strike and won support of the army + staged a military cup. This was organized by leading generals, with Pinochet as the head.
Left wing leaders were imprisoned and killed, Allente as well.
CIA, helped by the Brazilian government played a vital role in the preparations of the cup, since the both feared the spread of communism in Latin America.
The new Chilean government was soon provoked criticism from outside world for brutal treatment of political convicts.
The USA stopped their aid.
Pinochet regime had some economic successes by bringing down the inflation.
In 89’ he allowed presidential elections and in 90’ Aylwin was allowed to become president
8.5 Détente: international relations from the 70:s to the 90:s
This word means a permanent relaxation of tensions between east and west. The first signs were noticed in the early 70:s.
a) Reasons for détente
The both super powers became fearful of the results of a possible nuclear war, where in reality the winner could not be decided. The both sides were stimulated by the effects of the Vietnam War, but of course had their own reasons as well:
The USSR understood the expense of the nuclear catch up.
They needed to devote more attention and resources to the satellite states, which all were suffering economical problems.
Simultaneously, the relations between them and China were not of the best nature, they did not want to be left behind while the relations between USA and China improved.
The Americans understood that there must be a better way of coping with the communism. Some Congressmen talked about returning to the isolation again.
The Chinese were anxious about their isolation, American intensions in Vietnam and about the bad relations with USSR.
The nations of Western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war would broke out.
Brandt, chancellor of West Germany (69’) tried to improve relations with Eastern Europe through Ostpolitik.
b) The USSR and China
· The Hot Line and the Ban Treaty was a progress. In 67’ an agreement was made that banned the use of nuclear weapons in outer space
· First real break through was :
72’ SALT 1 (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) was signed, this would:
It decided the total number of each ABMs, IBCMs, and SLBMs. Each side could have.
No agreement on MIRVs were made,
The agreement did not reduce the amount of armament, but it did slow the race down.
SALT 2 ----- US DID NOT ACCEPT THIS ///After, USA began to export wheat (vete)
The Helsinki Agreement (July 75’), in which USSR and USA, Canada and most European countries accepted the European frontiers after WW2.
The communist countries promised to allow their peoples human rights, including freedom of speech and freedom to leave the country.
Détente did not occur without some problems:
When USSR developed their 150 SS-20, NATO decided to deploy over 500 Cruises missiles in Europe in case of Russian attack on Western Europe. At the same time US refused to accept SALT 2, which would have limited the number of MIRVs.
Russia invaded Afghanistan (24 December 79’)
Reagan (81-89), had a new go ahead weapon system, the SDI (strategic defense initiative) also known as Star Wars. These intend to use weapons in space to destroy ballistic missiles in flight.
Détente’s climax, was reached again because of a Russian leader, this time Gorbatchev (85-91), and USA signed the INF (intermediate nuclear forces) (Dec 87’)
All land based intermediate range (300-3000 miles) nuclear weapons were to be scrapped over the next 3 years.
There were strict verification provisions so both sides could check that the weapons were actually destroyed
The INF was an important turning point, because this was the first time any weapons had been destroyed.
By 85’ USSR was embarrassed by its involvement in Afghanistan (100 000 troops were present), they found it impossible to win over the guerillas. The hostility of China, the suspicion of all Islamic nations and repeated condemnations by UN, forced the USSR to withdraw.
c) China and USA
Since the Korean War, the relations between those two were negative.
In 71’ the Chinese unexpectedly invited an American table tennis team to visit China, USA responded by calling off their veto of Chinese entry in the UN. (71’)
Still a problem in Taiwan
d) Relations between the USSR and China
The relations were bead because the Chinese did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, particularly his belief in peaceful co existence and that it was possible to achieve communism by methods other than violent.
They accused USSR for braking Lenin’s rules in order to suit their own needs, in reward Russia decreased economic aid to China.
At the end of the 70’s, when the relations between USA and China improved, it seemed that both Russia and China were vying for American support against each other, for the leadership of world communism. The Chinese now demanded their territories back, with Russia took.
There were also disputes about backing Vietnam who attacked Manchuria.
In 84’ the Chinese set their grievances against USSR:
The presence of Russian troops in Afghanistan
Soviet backing off Vietnamese troops in Cambodia
The soviet troops build along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia and Manchuria.
· Gorbachev decided to improve these relations. He:
Five year agreement on trade and cooperation was signed (July 85’)
Regular contact took place between the governments
Formal reconciliation took place in May 89’, when Gorbatchev visited Beijing
89’ Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia
8.6 The collapse of the communism in Eastern Europe, where international relations transformed
a) August 1988 to December 89’
· In 89 communism in Eastern Europe fell.
· The process began in Poland, in August 88’ when the solidarity trade union organized huge anti government strikes. These eventually the government to allow free elections, in which communists were defeated
· Hungary, was the next country to allow free elections, communist defeat.
· In East Germany, Honecker wanted to withstand the demonstrations, but was overruled by his colleges. By the end of 89’ the communist’s government resigned, the Wall was breached and Germany became reunited.
· Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania had thrown out their communist governments, multy party elections were held in Yugoslavia and Albania.
· By the end of December 91’ the USSR dissolved and Gorbatchev resigned. Communism was over after 74 years.
b) How were international relations affected?
The cold war was over
In 90’ the Warsaw Pact and the NATO countries signed a treaty of no longer enemies and weapons would only be used al self defense.
New conflicts soon arose
Nationalism started to grow as a sign of communist grip under a long time. Czechoslovakia divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia
Conflicts between Azerbaijan and Armenia arose, because of territory
Yugoslavia divided into 5 separate states
As the states of Western Europe were moving closer to the European Community, those of Eastern Europe were breaking up into even smaller units.
3. Nuclear Weapon supervision
Countries considered as unstable or irresponsible governments might use the nuclear weapons. This is why supervision was needed over nuclear, biological and chemical weapons
4. Economical problems
E. Europe had now to learn hot to deal with the economy, from a command economy to a free market economy. They needed to plan their economy carefully with the help of Western Europe; otherwise stability would be hard to be created.
Nationalism and economic unrest could cause a write wing backlash, which could have been dangerous.
They were concerned about a possible income for Russia would have been the commerce with nuclear weapons with smaller countries.
5. The unification of Germany created some problems
The poles were afraid that the Germans would take back the area east of the river of Odder and Neisse.
Polish immigrants were seen as a problem.
Relations between the western allies.
Relations between Japan, USA, and Western Europe were good before they were united. They had the same aim: to withstand communism
USA, for example refused to provide troops for the UN peacekeeping forces, leaving Bosnia the burden to the other member states.
