Educating Rita
By Willy Russell
What does Rita gain from her education and what does she lose?53
Firstly, Rita is a 26 year old woman that does not live in an intellectual environment, something that means that she has plenty to learn from Frank. Rita did not gain the proper opportunity to study, as she sometimes desired “See, if I started takin’ school seriously I would have had to become different from me mates, an’ that’s not allowed.” (Page 21)
The environment in which she lived influenced her to a great extent “So y’ never admit that school could be anything’ other then useless.” (Page 21)
This lack of opportunity to study as she sometimes prefers, leads to the fact that she learns more than she loses. During the course at Frank’s, Rita leans how to analyze and how to treat literature. One of the most significant things Rita learns is how to write an essay in an appropriate way. Rita’s first essay turns out to be a disaster; she must learn how to write references: “Rita, how the hell can you write an essay on E.M Forster with almost total reference to Harold Robbins?” (Page 29) Rita must learn about source criticism “Crap? And who are you citing in support of your thesis, F.R Leavis?” “No. Me!” (Page 23)
Throughout the play you can notice how Rita’s essays develop. On page 71 you can see how Rita’s essay is written properly but this time Frank does not like it because, according to Rita, he is subjective. Simultaneously, Rita discovers the secret of intellectual conversations. Throughout the play she learns from Frank how to structure an argument properly, this means first to make a statement, then give an example and ultimately explain. Towards the end, she does this quite often “I walked over an’ said, ‘Excuse me but I couldn’t help overhearin’ the rubbish you were spotting about Lawrence’. […] The next thing is there’s this heated discussion, with me right in the middle of it.” (Page 67)
This scene proves how Rita has developed. She gained the knowledge and the courage that is needed for an argumentative discussion.
Frank helps Rita to expand her vocabulary. In the beginning of the play, you can notice Rita’s sometimes informal language, which also every now and then creates misunderstandings between the two main characters “No. Roger McGough. It was about this old man who runs away from hospital an’ goes out on the ale. He gets pissed an’ stands in the street shoutin’… […] It’s dead good.” (Page 7) You can observe Rita’s informal language here. Her language contains plenty of abbreviations as well. This might decrease the quality of the spoken language. The example above can be compared with “But Frank, I have to persevere in order that I shall.” (Page 66) Here, Rita illustrates the fact that she must talk properly in everyday situations. Also, towards the end Rita does not use as many abbreviations as in the start. It may be visible that Rita improves her language and expand her vocabulary.
As almost everything in everyday life, her education contains not only advantages but drawbacks as well.
As I mentioned above Rita did not gain the proper opportunity to study, also because of her family and friends. The educations Rita gains might distance her from her family and friends. This for example, was one of the causes that ended Rita’s relationship with Denny “No. I don’t wanna talk about Denny. […] Why was Chekhov a comic genius?” (Page 40)
Here we can see that Rita feels a bigger connection to knowledge than Denny. Several times Denny showed his anger and explained that this was because her education. The education created vast differences between Rita and her family and friends. These differences might distance her from the environment she used to live in.
Compare and contrast the way Rita and Frank use language throughout Educating Rita.
Both Rita and Frank wish the surrounding to identify them by their usage of language similarities!!!!!!!!!!!
From the beginning of the play there exists a huge contrast between Frank’s and Rita’s language. Frank is about fifty years old and has worked with literature the big majority of his life, something that improved his language incredibly “But the term ‘beautiful’ covers the many feelings I have about that picture, including the feeling that, yes, it is erotic.” (Page 5) You can notice how the sentence contains formal language and is even well structured in the conversation’s context.
Rita, on the other hand, comes from an uneducated family and from a non intellectual environment. Rita’s problem in the beginning of the play is the language. She replies often with witty lines but the lack of formal language makes her argument weaker “I’ll bet he did y’ know. You don’t paint pictures like that just so that people can admire the brush strokes, do y’?” “Frank (Giving a short laugh) No-no-you’re probably right.” (Page 5) Here you can observe that Frank agrees with Rita, to a certain extent, that the painting is erotic. If she had used a more advanced and formal language, Frank would probably agree with her entirely.
In the last part of the play you can see the development of Rita’s language (Page 66), while Frank’s, according to me, has not altered.
Rita describes herself as a ‘half-caste’, neither fitting comfortably into her own society or that of Frank. Find evidence for this. How appropriate would it be to describe Frank in the same way? Explain.
As I mentioned before Rita comes from a non intellectual environment. What makes her special and different is her desire to study. This is why does not feel full connection to the environment she lives in “I mean, there was always somethin’ in me head, tappin’ away, tellin’ me I might have got it all wrong. But I’d just play another record or buy another dress and stop worryin’ […] Is this the absolute maximum I can expect from this living lark? […] And it’s really tempting to go out and get another dress y’ know, it is. Cause it’s easy, it doesn’t cost anything, doesn’t upset anyone around y’. Like cos they don’t want y’ to change.” (Page 21) This quotation shows that Rita wanted more from life, but the people around her influenced her in a negative way and this is why she did not fit comfortably into her own society.
The play is about educating Rita, this means that Rita does not fit into Frank’s society yet. It takes a time before she can feel a part of Frank’s educated society. The more time it will pass the more Rita will feel connections to Frank’s society. These quotations are taken from the play’s last pages
“[…] Rita: What you can’t bear is that I am educated now read […]” (Page 78) and “Frank: Is that all you wanted? Have you come all this way for so very, very little? ” (Page 79)
In the first example, Rita realizes the fact that she is educated, while Frank, in the second quotation, explains that Rita is still a half-cast because she must continue with her studies in order to feel full connection to such a society.
4. Look closely at Act 1, scenes 6-7. Explain why Frank invites her to dinner and ultimately, why she fails to turn up.
In the beginning of Scene 6, Rita bursts trough Frank’s door and interrupts him by telling about the play that she has seen. Rita explains what a magnificent time she has had at the theater. Frank and Rita start an intense conversation about Macbeth, the play that Rita went to.
Understanding the fact that Rita is deeply interested in literature and intellectual life, Frank gives her the opportunity to come for dinner. Frank notices that Rita might now be able to cope with a conversation with educated people and simultaneously that she must experience such a great event. Frank is also familiar with the fact that Rita does not live in an intellectual environment and has not the opportunity to go to dinner with such kind of people.
At the same time, according to me, Frank wants to be thankful “Rita: I just had to tell to someone who’d understand” “Frank: I’m honored that you chose me.” (Page 47)
Rita is revealing something that might be considered by Frank as emotional. In this case he wanted to be thankful as well. So, Frank invites Rita to dinner because she is deeply interested in literature and intellectual life and because Frank wanted to give Rita the opportunity ‘to sing a better song.’
Unfortunately, Rita does not show up. The main reason why Rita did not come was because she did not feel intellectual prepared “I am alright with you, here in this room; but when I saw those people you were with I couldn’t come in.” (Page 52) This failed attempt of entering Frank’s society shows that Rita is still a half-caste.
5. Explain Willy Russell’s use of humor in the play. Hint: You might begin by looking at the misunderstandings which arise between Frank and Rita at the beginning of the play, a consequence of their different social/ cultural backgrounds.
The humor in the play occurs in situations quite often. The misunderstandings arise often because Rita’s personality. She has the desire to talk rapidly and she gets often off topic. Already on the second page we are give such an example “Frank: You are? Rita: What am I? Frank: Pardon? Rita: What? Frank: Now you are? Rita: I’m what? ”
Rita’s personality, her openness, her desire for studies, her dialect and her thoughts play a big part of the play’s humor.
Another humorous act of Rita is every time she gets of topic after she started a discussion
“Rita: That’s a nice picture; isn’t it? […] Frank: I think it’s very beautiful. Rita: I didn’t ask if it was beautiful. […] Rita: D’ y’ get a lot like me? Frank: Pardon?” (Page 5)
This quotation is taken from their very first dialog, when Rita refuses to answer Frank’s question. She suddenly changes the topic and starts discussing about a picture on the wall and after a short time she changes topic again. Frank does not always succeed to keep up with Rita’s discussions, something that may be amusing.
6.
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onsdag 6 februari 2008
What consequences for the Swedish language are there of this English-language expansion into secondary school system education? Should the government
What consequences for the Swedish language are there of this English-language expansion into secondary school system education? Should the government make any restrictions? Why or why not?
I want to begin with my burning interest in English studies, something that might affect my opinion towards this area. Anyhow, some languages and of course cultures are considered, more or less, being under threat because the English-language expansion. Throughout the whole history, nations have expanded and that expansion brought about the death of some cultures and languages. We can notice and come to the conclusion that the extent to which a language can be reborn is very small. This is why I will look closer to the question:
What consequences for the Swedish language are there of this English language expansion into secondary school system education? Should the government make any restrictions? Why or why not?
I do not think that the government should make any restrictions within this area and that the consequences are not as negative as in other countries yet.
First of all, I have to mention the big American-life style-influence- that exists in Sweden. As many people know, food habits, fashion etc. are imported directly mostly from the USA and then from other countries as well. This great influenced Sweden, has affected the local language to a great extent, but one factor that might help the Swedish language stay alive under a longer period of time, is the people’s awareness of the English influenced Swedish. With the help of this factor, people can conserve old traditions more, something that may help the Swedish language. This is why I believe that the English language does not create significant negative consequences. Furthermore, the English loan words even enrich the Swedish vocabulary. Words as: alliteration, gravitation, Darwinism etc. emphasize my opinion. This is one reason for the Swedish government not to take any restrictions.
There are many other factors that affect my opinion about the English influence on Swedish, but as far as I understand, in Sweden, this expansion creates more then it destroys.
As far as the people are aware of this fact and as long as they do something about this, for example conserving old traditions and give birth to diasporas abroad, the English- language expansion represents no major consequences. Another process that underlines my theory is that the English loan words enrich the Swedish language, something which is mainly positive.
As I wrote above, the Swedish government should not take any restrictions yet and the present consequences are mostly unimportant.
I want to begin with my burning interest in English studies, something that might affect my opinion towards this area. Anyhow, some languages and of course cultures are considered, more or less, being under threat because the English-language expansion. Throughout the whole history, nations have expanded and that expansion brought about the death of some cultures and languages. We can notice and come to the conclusion that the extent to which a language can be reborn is very small. This is why I will look closer to the question:
What consequences for the Swedish language are there of this English language expansion into secondary school system education? Should the government make any restrictions? Why or why not?
I do not think that the government should make any restrictions within this area and that the consequences are not as negative as in other countries yet.
First of all, I have to mention the big American-life style-influence- that exists in Sweden. As many people know, food habits, fashion etc. are imported directly mostly from the USA and then from other countries as well. This great influenced Sweden, has affected the local language to a great extent, but one factor that might help the Swedish language stay alive under a longer period of time, is the people’s awareness of the English influenced Swedish. With the help of this factor, people can conserve old traditions more, something that may help the Swedish language. This is why I believe that the English language does not create significant negative consequences. Furthermore, the English loan words even enrich the Swedish vocabulary. Words as: alliteration, gravitation, Darwinism etc. emphasize my opinion. This is one reason for the Swedish government not to take any restrictions.
There are many other factors that affect my opinion about the English influence on Swedish, but as far as I understand, in Sweden, this expansion creates more then it destroys.
As far as the people are aware of this fact and as long as they do something about this, for example conserving old traditions and give birth to diasporas abroad, the English- language expansion represents no major consequences. Another process that underlines my theory is that the English loan words enrich the Swedish language, something which is mainly positive.
As I wrote above, the Swedish government should not take any restrictions yet and the present consequences are mostly unimportant.
The English Language Today
The English Language Today
By David Crystal
Summary
The English linguist, David Crystal, tries to explain the importance and the reasons why English counts as a global language. The text shows two different theories of why a language can be counted as worldwide. The first is the extent to which a language is found useful outside its original setting and the second describes the grade of difficulty of considering the language as global with the help of the total number of its speakers.
To count all the mother tongue speakers of English is not the biggest obstacle, because we have exact numbers of the population of these countries. The problem seems to be the countries that use English as a second or as a foreign language. In these areas where English is used as a foreign language, it is studied at high levels, for example in schools and universities. Even though this happens mostly in developed countries, to make an estimate of the English speakers here is, as Crystal claims, something almost impossible and of course the question of -to what extent somebody speaks English- comes in the picture as well.
In countries where English is used as an official/second language such as Ghana and Nigeria the problem becomes even more difficult. Here, the legal system, education and media are mainly in English. But because of the existence of several ethnical groups, all with different native languages, English has been chosen to neutralize possible ethnical and lingual conflicts in the area. English is counted here as a “second” language also because the people want to maintain their traditions. Because of this many of them speak their own language at home. This factor combined with the poverty that makes the educational opportunities limited, makes it, again, impossible to make an exact estimate of the English speakers in the area.
Crystal argues that every language reaches its climax with the help of the economy. Several languages as French and Latin have reached the worldwide status. Today is the turn of English, but in case of a massive change in the economy and of the balance of power of the western world, the position of the English language can be put in danger, but until then the English language will continue to develop and the number of the English speakers will continue to increase.
Word Count: 383
By David Crystal
Summary
The English linguist, David Crystal, tries to explain the importance and the reasons why English counts as a global language. The text shows two different theories of why a language can be counted as worldwide. The first is the extent to which a language is found useful outside its original setting and the second describes the grade of difficulty of considering the language as global with the help of the total number of its speakers.
To count all the mother tongue speakers of English is not the biggest obstacle, because we have exact numbers of the population of these countries. The problem seems to be the countries that use English as a second or as a foreign language. In these areas where English is used as a foreign language, it is studied at high levels, for example in schools and universities. Even though this happens mostly in developed countries, to make an estimate of the English speakers here is, as Crystal claims, something almost impossible and of course the question of -to what extent somebody speaks English- comes in the picture as well.
In countries where English is used as an official/second language such as Ghana and Nigeria the problem becomes even more difficult. Here, the legal system, education and media are mainly in English. But because of the existence of several ethnical groups, all with different native languages, English has been chosen to neutralize possible ethnical and lingual conflicts in the area. English is counted here as a “second” language also because the people want to maintain their traditions. Because of this many of them speak their own language at home. This factor combined with the poverty that makes the educational opportunities limited, makes it, again, impossible to make an exact estimate of the English speakers in the area.
Crystal argues that every language reaches its climax with the help of the economy. Several languages as French and Latin have reached the worldwide status. Today is the turn of English, but in case of a massive change in the economy and of the balance of power of the western world, the position of the English language can be put in danger, but until then the English language will continue to develop and the number of the English speakers will continue to increase.
Word Count: 383
What does Rita gain from her education and what does she lose? based on educating rita by Willy russel
What does Rita gain from her education and what does she lose?
In the play written by William Russell in 1979, you meet a 26 year old hairdresser that decides to improve her life trough an education. The hairdresser, Rita, comes from a working class background from Liverpool, something which is an obstacle in her pursuit of knowledge. Nevertheless, she understands that a possible education would function as an entry into a superior lifestyle. As the time passes, Rita’s thirst of education increases and she feels that she gains an identity. Her tutor, Frank, plays a vital part in her development.
The process of gaining this identity decreases her ability to understand the possible drawbacks of her education. Throughout her development, her personality is changing inevitably and according to her, the development is mainly positive. This essay will analyze what Rita gains from her education and what she loses.
Rita is gaining a lot from her education but simultaneously refuses to cope with the fact that her personality and mentality alter too. Because of these changes, Rita distances from her family and the environment she was part of. This huge loss of separation from her family is, anyhow, not comprehended completely by Rita. Nevertheless, the connections with her old environment disappear and not having arrived yet in the new desired, upper-class world, Rita feels desolated and claims that she is ‘I’m a half-caste’. This somber separation from her family, friends, acquaintances and boyfriend can be noticed during several occasions in the play; when Rita joins her family at the pub and while the whole family is singing joyfully along the jukebox, Rita realizes how futile her family’s present is. Rita remarks that she must revive and obtain a genuine identity. This process becomes her intention and because of the education, it occurs. But everything has a prize in life; the more she is distancing from her family and earlier environment, the more she gains the desired upper-class identity.
This fact is grasped by her teacher, Frank. The tutor is, to a certain extent, aware of his decline within the private and working life and notices that Rita yearns for the same things that he does not value anymore. Throughout the play, Frank realizes that because of this education, much of Rita’s personal charisma, as for example her vivaciousness and brightness vanishes. Rita refuses to understand these drawbacks of her education and instead of taking in consideration Frank’s observation, she negates replies: ‘What's up, Frank, don't y' like me now that the little girl's grown up, now that y' can no longer bounce me on daddy's knee an' watch me stare back in wide-eyed wonder at everything he has to say?’
As I mentioned before, with the help of the education Rita gains, more or less, the kind of identity that she yearned for. This occurs tragically because it distances Rita from her family and friends.
In terms of education, because of her thirst of knowledge, Rita gains a lot. She learns how to articulate a speech, to discuss properly, she gains knowledge about classic literature and music, learns how to write essays and learns famous quotations. However, one of the most vital accomplishments of Rita is self judgment. Throughout the play, you can notice how Rita’s ability of questioning knowledge increases. In the beginning of the play, this quotation is found: “Rita, how the hell can you write an essay on E.M Forster with almost total reference to Harold Robbins?” Rita must learn about source criticism “Crap? And who are you citing in support of your thesis, F.R Leavis?” “No. Me!”).
In this case, Rita is making an attempt to write an essay in a germane way, but eventually fails because she cannot question her own work and the sources she is dealing with. Throughout the book, she is progressing to a large extent. In the end she says, I will try to quote from the memory, that “I wanted it all so much, I did not want it (the knowledge) to be questioned”. Frank’s and Trish’s influence helped the protagonist to understand that in order to be a genuine educated person, she has to question all possible knowledge.
Nevertheless, throughout the play, Rita is distancing from her family as a consequence of her new upper-class identity. Her new identity helps her to make tremendous progresses within the scholar life. Despite the obstacles that she faces in the pursuit of knowledge, she succeeds, more or less, to accomplish the demands of her education. Beside that Rita is on her way to become well-read, she even gains knowledge of source criticism and thus understands that questioning all kind of knowledge is vital.
In the play written by William Russell in 1979, you meet a 26 year old hairdresser that decides to improve her life trough an education. The hairdresser, Rita, comes from a working class background from Liverpool, something which is an obstacle in her pursuit of knowledge. Nevertheless, she understands that a possible education would function as an entry into a superior lifestyle. As the time passes, Rita’s thirst of education increases and she feels that she gains an identity. Her tutor, Frank, plays a vital part in her development.
The process of gaining this identity decreases her ability to understand the possible drawbacks of her education. Throughout her development, her personality is changing inevitably and according to her, the development is mainly positive. This essay will analyze what Rita gains from her education and what she loses.
Rita is gaining a lot from her education but simultaneously refuses to cope with the fact that her personality and mentality alter too. Because of these changes, Rita distances from her family and the environment she was part of. This huge loss of separation from her family is, anyhow, not comprehended completely by Rita. Nevertheless, the connections with her old environment disappear and not having arrived yet in the new desired, upper-class world, Rita feels desolated and claims that she is ‘I’m a half-caste’. This somber separation from her family, friends, acquaintances and boyfriend can be noticed during several occasions in the play; when Rita joins her family at the pub and while the whole family is singing joyfully along the jukebox, Rita realizes how futile her family’s present is. Rita remarks that she must revive and obtain a genuine identity. This process becomes her intention and because of the education, it occurs. But everything has a prize in life; the more she is distancing from her family and earlier environment, the more she gains the desired upper-class identity.
This fact is grasped by her teacher, Frank. The tutor is, to a certain extent, aware of his decline within the private and working life and notices that Rita yearns for the same things that he does not value anymore. Throughout the play, Frank realizes that because of this education, much of Rita’s personal charisma, as for example her vivaciousness and brightness vanishes. Rita refuses to understand these drawbacks of her education and instead of taking in consideration Frank’s observation, she negates replies: ‘What's up, Frank, don't y' like me now that the little girl's grown up, now that y' can no longer bounce me on daddy's knee an' watch me stare back in wide-eyed wonder at everything he has to say?’
As I mentioned before, with the help of the education Rita gains, more or less, the kind of identity that she yearned for. This occurs tragically because it distances Rita from her family and friends.
In terms of education, because of her thirst of knowledge, Rita gains a lot. She learns how to articulate a speech, to discuss properly, she gains knowledge about classic literature and music, learns how to write essays and learns famous quotations. However, one of the most vital accomplishments of Rita is self judgment. Throughout the play, you can notice how Rita’s ability of questioning knowledge increases. In the beginning of the play, this quotation is found: “Rita, how the hell can you write an essay on E.M Forster with almost total reference to Harold Robbins?” Rita must learn about source criticism “Crap? And who are you citing in support of your thesis, F.R Leavis?” “No. Me!”).
In this case, Rita is making an attempt to write an essay in a germane way, but eventually fails because she cannot question her own work and the sources she is dealing with. Throughout the book, she is progressing to a large extent. In the end she says, I will try to quote from the memory, that “I wanted it all so much, I did not want it (the knowledge) to be questioned”. Frank’s and Trish’s influence helped the protagonist to understand that in order to be a genuine educated person, she has to question all possible knowledge.
Nevertheless, throughout the play, Rita is distancing from her family as a consequence of her new upper-class identity. Her new identity helps her to make tremendous progresses within the scholar life. Despite the obstacles that she faces in the pursuit of knowledge, she succeeds, more or less, to accomplish the demands of her education. Beside that Rita is on her way to become well-read, she even gains knowledge of source criticism and thus understands that questioning all kind of knowledge is vital.
david mcintyre(teacher) talks about main cahracters in remains of the day
Describing the main characters in The Remains of the Day
Miss Kenton
Worked at Darlington’s for 15 years
Housekeeper
She tells and imagines how her life would be with Stevens P251
She is giving optimismà first time for the reader
She is determined
Seeing & Blindness: she sees that she cannot enter the relationship between Stevens and Darlington
Marries Mr. Ben
Has no close relatives
Not afraid of expressing ideas
Straight forward
Reveals Steven’s personality
Drives the narration
Comes to life at the end of the novel
Can become emotional, then becomes the opposite of Stevens
In contrast to Stevens, she wishes to do something with her life
Darlington
Comes from old distinguished family
Dead and diseased
Darlington symbol for Englishness, when Faraday takes overàsymbol for the disappearance of the empire and the abolishment of the Loyal Houses
Had a nephew
Trusted Stevens
Influenced by the Germans
Symbolizes the position of Britain in politicsà Darlington=powerful, Britain=world power
Has a friend that commits suicide
Darlington is symbol for Englishness & Faraday for Americans
Like a match of rugbyà British traditional sportà fight during the match and friends afterwardsà the same as Darlington thought about Germans, they fought against the Germans, but the fight was now over (UNRELIABLE IDEA OF DAVID)à contrast with USA
Father
· 2 childrenànot a good father à regrets that to the end
· 70 years oldàdies of heart attack
· Worked for Darlington àprofessional relation with himà dignityà Stevens regarded him as the personification of dignity
· Dedicated to work
· Not a member of Hayes Society
· Is Stevens model
· His name was William
Miss Kenton
Worked at Darlington’s for 15 years
Housekeeper
She tells and imagines how her life would be with Stevens P251
She is giving optimismà first time for the reader
She is determined
Seeing & Blindness: she sees that she cannot enter the relationship between Stevens and Darlington
Marries Mr. Ben
Has no close relatives
Not afraid of expressing ideas
Straight forward
Reveals Steven’s personality
Drives the narration
Comes to life at the end of the novel
Can become emotional, then becomes the opposite of Stevens
In contrast to Stevens, she wishes to do something with her life
Darlington
Comes from old distinguished family
Dead and diseased
Darlington symbol for Englishness, when Faraday takes overàsymbol for the disappearance of the empire and the abolishment of the Loyal Houses
Had a nephew
Trusted Stevens
Influenced by the Germans
Symbolizes the position of Britain in politicsà Darlington=powerful, Britain=world power
Has a friend that commits suicide
Darlington is symbol for Englishness & Faraday for Americans
Like a match of rugbyà British traditional sportà fight during the match and friends afterwardsà the same as Darlington thought about Germans, they fought against the Germans, but the fight was now over (UNRELIABLE IDEA OF DAVID)à contrast with USA
Father
· 2 childrenànot a good father à regrets that to the end
· 70 years oldàdies of heart attack
· Worked for Darlington àprofessional relation with himà dignityà Stevens regarded him as the personification of dignity
· Dedicated to work
· Not a member of Hayes Society
· Is Stevens model
· His name was William
comparative commentary, based on article sam cerro
Firstly, in my commentary, the text to the left that is an obituary will be called text A, while the newspaper story, on the right, text B.
The most obvious connections between the two texts, is the theme. The both articles are based on the same piece of information, which is the death of Sam Cerro. Even though the articles have, to a certain extent, a similar theme, the both texts convey different motives.
Another similarity that can be found in the both texts is the cause of Cerro’s death. Although this connection can be perceived, as a close reader, you can notice that in text A the protagonist “died at his home, on August 32, 1994, after a long illness”. The other text transmits the following information “died at St Mary’s Hospital from heart disease”.
An important similarity that you have to take in consideration is that the both texts are paradigmatic. Text A can be classified as paradigmatic because of its structure and language. An obituary is always compact, but very efficient. For example, in its first part it describes Cerro’s personality and conveys what kind of person he was, while the second part of the obituary gives you information about the funeral. The compact form is also combined with a big number of adjectives. These adjectives are words that usually describe the main character in a positive way. “We thank God for the 68 years we were allowed to share his life and know his love.” In the obituary Cerro is described as: beloved, loving and a person that the family members will miss. Text A follows the pathway of an obituary. The text is compact and packed with adjectives that describe the positive properties of Cerro, something that logically affects the readers thinking.
In the same way is the reader affected in text B, which is a newspaper story. Likewise text A, the structure and language of the newspaper story makes it paradigmatic as well. The pathway of a newspaper story consists, unlike text A, of a big number of verbs, while the structure is much longer and divided in columns. The usage of the big number of verbs occurs in order to keep the audience read and get informed through a fast way. As I stated above, the fact that both texts are paradigmatic, makes one similarity that has to be taken in consideration.
It is crucial to understand that even though the both texts are based on the same theme, they convey different motives. Already through the headline in text B, you encounter the word “crime figure”. The subtitle strengthens the negative picture of Cerro even more with the help of the incomplete sentence “Record includes drugs, gambling”
In contrast to text B, text A, already through the first words, the protagonist is given the role of “beloved husband, father, brother, grandfather…” In text A, the presence of the emotional atmosphere describes gives the reader an opposite appreciation.
The texts are dissimilar mostly because their complete different purposes. Text B is a newspaper story, something that forces the journalists to use terms of exaggeration or situations that attract the readers in order to be published. The terms of exaggeration can be noticed between the lines. Throughout the text, the newspaper story infers details of the main character’s life and off-putting arguments that construct an interesting article. There exist several examples that do so, one of them can be “... to have supplied cocaine to the men…”. The use of cocaine works as an eliminating factor from today’s society. A person that makes use of this drug might be shut from the society. In our case the author accomplishes his goal.
On the other hand, text A has a completely different purpose. The obituary has the aim of informing the society of the death of a normal person. Unlike text B, the obituary is most probably written by Cerro’s family. The members of his family, in this case, want to convey the genuine person behind the descriptions of the media, something that can be understood with the help of the presence of love and respect for Cerro in the obituary. The following example “We will love him forever and miss him greatly” confirms the purpose of the obituary, because it argues against text B, which may have been published before text A. The previous example above shows that although Cerro might have had difficulties during his life with following the law, he was a remarkable person, which will be remembered by his family forever. The different purpose of the texts is an important factor that proves the vast differences between the texts.
Another enormous difference is the usage of language in the texts. In text A, the author uses a special kind of vocabulary. This specific code describes the positive properties of the central figure and his/her personality or attitude, “Sam loved the birds and the bees, the flowers and the trees and all the animal life beautified from his loving care.” Here the words work together to classify Cerro as a normal genuine person, precisely like everybody else. Unlike text A, text B uses an entirely different language, “Cerro’s long career in local crime included drugs, tax evasion, gambling and illegal abortion.” This example, unlike text A, analyzes what the central character did during his life and what kind of person he was. The poetic way of writing in text A and the journalistic text in the newspaper story makes the two texts even more dissimilar.
Ultimately, if you do not take the paradigmatic form in consideration, it is interesting to analyze what devices the two texts use for the information. Unlike the obituary, in text B, you can notice the presence of the authority of voice. This means that the journalist notifies important associations as the coroner’s office and hints the situation to negative figures, as Garrot the pimp, to influence the reader in the way they wish. In text A, the author uses the presence of several members of family to make the protagonist as normal as possible, “He is survived by his daughters, Linda, Michelle, Cathy and Jacky, his brother, John, and sisters Nellie and Joe and many grandchildren, nieces, nephews and cousins.” The usage of different tools to influence the reader and win his attention is an important difference that has to be taken in consideration.
Word Count: 1068
The most obvious connections between the two texts, is the theme. The both articles are based on the same piece of information, which is the death of Sam Cerro. Even though the articles have, to a certain extent, a similar theme, the both texts convey different motives.
Another similarity that can be found in the both texts is the cause of Cerro’s death. Although this connection can be perceived, as a close reader, you can notice that in text A the protagonist “died at his home, on August 32, 1994, after a long illness”. The other text transmits the following information “died at St Mary’s Hospital from heart disease”.
An important similarity that you have to take in consideration is that the both texts are paradigmatic. Text A can be classified as paradigmatic because of its structure and language. An obituary is always compact, but very efficient. For example, in its first part it describes Cerro’s personality and conveys what kind of person he was, while the second part of the obituary gives you information about the funeral. The compact form is also combined with a big number of adjectives. These adjectives are words that usually describe the main character in a positive way. “We thank God for the 68 years we were allowed to share his life and know his love.” In the obituary Cerro is described as: beloved, loving and a person that the family members will miss. Text A follows the pathway of an obituary. The text is compact and packed with adjectives that describe the positive properties of Cerro, something that logically affects the readers thinking.
In the same way is the reader affected in text B, which is a newspaper story. Likewise text A, the structure and language of the newspaper story makes it paradigmatic as well. The pathway of a newspaper story consists, unlike text A, of a big number of verbs, while the structure is much longer and divided in columns. The usage of the big number of verbs occurs in order to keep the audience read and get informed through a fast way. As I stated above, the fact that both texts are paradigmatic, makes one similarity that has to be taken in consideration.
It is crucial to understand that even though the both texts are based on the same theme, they convey different motives. Already through the headline in text B, you encounter the word “crime figure”. The subtitle strengthens the negative picture of Cerro even more with the help of the incomplete sentence “Record includes drugs, gambling”
In contrast to text B, text A, already through the first words, the protagonist is given the role of “beloved husband, father, brother, grandfather…” In text A, the presence of the emotional atmosphere describes gives the reader an opposite appreciation.
The texts are dissimilar mostly because their complete different purposes. Text B is a newspaper story, something that forces the journalists to use terms of exaggeration or situations that attract the readers in order to be published. The terms of exaggeration can be noticed between the lines. Throughout the text, the newspaper story infers details of the main character’s life and off-putting arguments that construct an interesting article. There exist several examples that do so, one of them can be “... to have supplied cocaine to the men…”. The use of cocaine works as an eliminating factor from today’s society. A person that makes use of this drug might be shut from the society. In our case the author accomplishes his goal.
On the other hand, text A has a completely different purpose. The obituary has the aim of informing the society of the death of a normal person. Unlike text B, the obituary is most probably written by Cerro’s family. The members of his family, in this case, want to convey the genuine person behind the descriptions of the media, something that can be understood with the help of the presence of love and respect for Cerro in the obituary. The following example “We will love him forever and miss him greatly” confirms the purpose of the obituary, because it argues against text B, which may have been published before text A. The previous example above shows that although Cerro might have had difficulties during his life with following the law, he was a remarkable person, which will be remembered by his family forever. The different purpose of the texts is an important factor that proves the vast differences between the texts.
Another enormous difference is the usage of language in the texts. In text A, the author uses a special kind of vocabulary. This specific code describes the positive properties of the central figure and his/her personality or attitude, “Sam loved the birds and the bees, the flowers and the trees and all the animal life beautified from his loving care.” Here the words work together to classify Cerro as a normal genuine person, precisely like everybody else. Unlike text A, text B uses an entirely different language, “Cerro’s long career in local crime included drugs, tax evasion, gambling and illegal abortion.” This example, unlike text A, analyzes what the central character did during his life and what kind of person he was. The poetic way of writing in text A and the journalistic text in the newspaper story makes the two texts even more dissimilar.
Ultimately, if you do not take the paradigmatic form in consideration, it is interesting to analyze what devices the two texts use for the information. Unlike the obituary, in text B, you can notice the presence of the authority of voice. This means that the journalist notifies important associations as the coroner’s office and hints the situation to negative figures, as Garrot the pimp, to influence the reader in the way they wish. In text A, the author uses the presence of several members of family to make the protagonist as normal as possible, “He is survived by his daughters, Linda, Michelle, Cathy and Jacky, his brother, John, and sisters Nellie and Joe and many grandchildren, nieces, nephews and cousins.” The usage of different tools to influence the reader and win his attention is an important difference that has to be taken in consideration.
Word Count: 1068
notes and preparation on the theme butlers and dignity, The remains of the day
Butlers and Dignity
-Remains of the Day-
The Remains of the Day is a novel written by Kazuro Ishiguro in 1989. In the novel we follow the central character, Stevens, on a six-day-trip. Stevens, the butler, regards himself as a professional butler and squanders his life on improving his dignity and professionalism as a butler. During the novel, the reader comprehends his painful life and past.
Butlers and dignity are two themes in the novel, which might play a part of Stevens’ unhappiness. These two themes are present throughout the whole novel.
Stevens’ unhappiness, as I mentioned above, may be a consequence of his occupation. Being a butler, was not Steven’s genuine choice. He wanted to become a great butler, because it was the only way that a butler’s son could influence the course of events positively. Stevens’ devotion to his vocation and the dignity that is related to his profession is giving him an identity that gives him the role of admirer of life. Stevens converses about how true Butlers must behave and structure their dignity. Throughout the novel he uses his position as a British butler to justify himself.
“The great butlers are great by virtue of their ability to inhabit their professional role and inhabit it to the utmost; they will not be shaken by external events, however surprising, alarming or vexing, they wear the professionalism as a decent gentlemen will wear his suite; he will not let ruffians or circumstances tear it off him in the public gaze; he will discard it when, and only when, he is entirely alone. It is as I say a matter off dignity.”
During the years, Stevens’s personality, interests and behavior are merged together into one professional butler. This becomes “his suite” that he never takes off. This turned Stevens into a day-night professional with “the suit” on. Stevens acts fully professionally. Even the novel is written in such way. Since it is a diary, the reader expects it to be like most diaries: personal, subjective, full of confessions and emotions. As a replacement for such, the diary is composed of structured memories and considerations of butlers. Every single thought is described and analyzed from a butler’s professional point of view.
His vocation correlates with dignity. Stevens considers hid duty in the following way:
“My vocation will not be fulfilled until I have done all that I can to see his lordship through the great tasks that he has set himself. Only on that day I will be able to call myself a well-contented man.”
This example proves how devoted Stevens was to Darlington. This, in combination with the struggle for achieving impeccable perfection within his vocation, gives Stevens the role of a passive admirer of life which analyzes his past through ‘corrective lenses’.
According to Stevens, he is not simply a perfect reflection of Britain’s dignity and perfect butlers, but also a factor that contributed to history through his work:
“The state of the silver had made a small, but significant contribution towards the easing of relations between the two gentlemen that evening. Something so trivial, would affect the rest of the world.”
Even though he may have increased the future Nazi influence in Britain, he did not realize this fact. This error occurred because of the ‘corrective lenses’ that I mentioned above.
-Remains of the Day-
The Remains of the Day is a novel written by Kazuro Ishiguro in 1989. In the novel we follow the central character, Stevens, on a six-day-trip. Stevens, the butler, regards himself as a professional butler and squanders his life on improving his dignity and professionalism as a butler. During the novel, the reader comprehends his painful life and past.
Butlers and dignity are two themes in the novel, which might play a part of Stevens’ unhappiness. These two themes are present throughout the whole novel.
Stevens’ unhappiness, as I mentioned above, may be a consequence of his occupation. Being a butler, was not Steven’s genuine choice. He wanted to become a great butler, because it was the only way that a butler’s son could influence the course of events positively. Stevens’ devotion to his vocation and the dignity that is related to his profession is giving him an identity that gives him the role of admirer of life. Stevens converses about how true Butlers must behave and structure their dignity. Throughout the novel he uses his position as a British butler to justify himself.
“The great butlers are great by virtue of their ability to inhabit their professional role and inhabit it to the utmost; they will not be shaken by external events, however surprising, alarming or vexing, they wear the professionalism as a decent gentlemen will wear his suite; he will not let ruffians or circumstances tear it off him in the public gaze; he will discard it when, and only when, he is entirely alone. It is as I say a matter off dignity.”
During the years, Stevens’s personality, interests and behavior are merged together into one professional butler. This becomes “his suite” that he never takes off. This turned Stevens into a day-night professional with “the suit” on. Stevens acts fully professionally. Even the novel is written in such way. Since it is a diary, the reader expects it to be like most diaries: personal, subjective, full of confessions and emotions. As a replacement for such, the diary is composed of structured memories and considerations of butlers. Every single thought is described and analyzed from a butler’s professional point of view.
His vocation correlates with dignity. Stevens considers hid duty in the following way:
“My vocation will not be fulfilled until I have done all that I can to see his lordship through the great tasks that he has set himself. Only on that day I will be able to call myself a well-contented man.”
This example proves how devoted Stevens was to Darlington. This, in combination with the struggle for achieving impeccable perfection within his vocation, gives Stevens the role of a passive admirer of life which analyzes his past through ‘corrective lenses’.
According to Stevens, he is not simply a perfect reflection of Britain’s dignity and perfect butlers, but also a factor that contributed to history through his work:
“The state of the silver had made a small, but significant contribution towards the easing of relations between the two gentlemen that evening. Something so trivial, would affect the rest of the world.”
Even though he may have increased the future Nazi influence in Britain, he did not realize this fact. This error occurred because of the ‘corrective lenses’ that I mentioned above.
China since 1949: the communists in control, lowe notes
China since 1949: the communists in control
Summary of events
After the communist victory Mao set about rebuilding
At the first there was Russian advice and aid, in the late 1950’s relations cooled and Russian economic aid was reduced
In 58 Mao introduced the Great Leap Forward, in which communism was introduced. The emphasis was put on decentralization, agriculture, communes and contact with the masses.
Mao became critical to Russia because, in his view, the Russians went away from the Marxist Principles and he blamed them that they followed the capitalist road
During the 60’s these disagreements caused a serious drift in world communism , which were only healed after Gorbachev became a Russian leader
The cultural revolution (66-69), meant that Mao succeeded to crush all the opposition and to keep the party’s development along Marxist Leninist lines
After Mao’s death (76) there was a power of struggle from which Deng emerged as undisputed leader (81).
Dang’s policies were moderating Mao’s ideas, were less conservative and Deng looked towards Japan and the West for ideas and support.
In 87 Deng wad forced to slow down his reforms because of the big opposition of Mao’s supporters, which accused Deng of following the capitalist road.
In April 89, the Chinese were encouraged by Gorbachev’s policies, e.g. glasnost and the revolutions that took place in Eastern Europe. The Chinese started a revolution in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They demanded democracy and end of corruption and CCP.
The Armies moved in, crushing the opposition and restored order. The communism and the economic reforms continued with some successes, but there was no political reform. Deng continued as a supreme leader until his death in 97 (age of 92)
18.1 How successful was Mao in dealing with China’s problem?
a) What were the problems facing Mao?
· The problems facing China were complex
· The country was devastated after the civil war with Japan: railways, roads, canals, and dykes had been destroyed and there were chronic food shortages, industry was backward, agriculture was inefficient and incapable, inflation was huge
· To satisfy the supporter’s demands was crucial for Mao
· It was difficult for Mao to control and organize such a vast country
· Mao looked closely at Stalin’s methods and experimented to find out what would work in China and what would not.
b) The constitution of 1950 (officially adopted 54’)
· Every 4 years the people elected members of the National People’s Congress (the final authority of legislation)
· The State Council and the Chairman of the Republic were chosen by the Congress, whose function was to look after that the laws were carried out properly and that the countries policies went ahead
· The State Council elected the Politburo, which took all the main decisions.
· The whole system was dominated by the communist party and only party members could be elected.
· The system was important because if provided the country with a central government, the first in many years. The system is today almost unchanged.
c) Agricultural changes
· These transformed China from an inefficient country to one of large co operative like Russia.
· In the first stages land was taken from land owners and given to peasants, also sometimes with violence. It is important to know that some historians claim that the violence never occurred.
· The next step was achieved without violence. Peasants were persuaded to join collective farms (not like in Russia).
· By 1956 about 95% of all peasants were collectivized in order to increase food production
d) Industrial changes
· This begun with the government nationalizing most businesses.
· In 1953 a Five Year Plan of the heavy industry started, where the Russians helped with cash, equipment and advisers.
· Before it was complete Mao started to have doubts about the Five Year Plan, if this Plan was suited for China. Mao could claim that under his leadership China recovered from the ravages of the war, full communication has been restored, inflation was under control an the economy looked better.
e) The Hundred Flowers Campaign (57)
· This developed from the industrialization which produced a new class of technicians and engineers. These were called the party cadres.
· The cadres were groups that organized the masses politically and economically e.g. collectivization of farms.
· Mao decided first open discussion of the problems might improve relations between cadres, experts or intellectuals.
· These created only criticism and opposition
· Mao called off the campaign and clamped down on his critics
· The campaign showed that the actual opposition still existed.
· Mao was convinced that he had to consolidate the advance of socialism. He introduced the Great Leap Forward.
f) The Great Leap Forward
· This was a policy that would face the Chinese situation and was not based on Russian experience.
· You can say that The Great Leap Forward wad an extension of the Five Year Plan.
· It was mostly concentrated on agriculture that was ineffective. This would increase output
· Its most important features were:
The introduction of communes
Units larges than collective farms, containing up to 75 000 people, divided into brigades and teams with an elected council.
They ran their own collective farms and factories, carried out most of the functions of local government within the commune and undertook special projects.
A complete change of emphasis in industry
· Instead of aiming for large scale works of the type seen in Russian and the West, smaller factories were set up on the country side to provide machinery for agriculture
· Mao talked about 600 000 backyard steel furnaces organized and managed by the communes, which also undertook to build roads, canals, dams, reservoirs and irrigation channels.
· At first the Leap was a great failure, which was caused also because of the Russian aid withdrawal, lack of experience among the cadres. Mao’s prestige suffered because of the failure and he was forced to resign as Chairman
· In the long term the importance of the Great Leap forward became clear, both industrial and agricultural production increased substantially and China could manage to feed its massive population without famine
· The communes proved to be a successful innovation, even more affective then collective farms. This gave the government chance to keep in touch with the local opinion
· The crucial decision that had been taken by China is that they would remain an agricultural country with small scale industry spread around the country side
· The economy would be labor intensive, which means that it relied on massive numbers of workers instead of laborsaving machines. This give also anyone a job, it enabled China to avoid the growing unemployment problems, as I happened in the West.
· Other benefits were the spread of education and welfare services and of the women’s role in the society.
g) The Cultural Revolution (66-69)
· This was Mao’s attempt to keep the revolution and the Great Leap forward on a pure Marxist course
· In the early 1960 the successes of the Great Leap forward were not visible and opposition to Mao grew
· The right wing members of the party believed that incentives were necessary if the communes were to function efficiently. The right wingers also believed that China needed an expert managerial class to push forward the industrialization on the Russian model, instead of relying on cadres
· To the Maoists this was unacceptable, it was exactly this Mao condemned the Russians for (taking the capitalist road)
· Between 63 and 66 there was a great public debate about which course to follow
· Mao used his position as a chairman so he launched a campaign to save the revolution
· He called this as the proletarian Cultural Revolution. He appealed to the masses, which were mostly students (the Red Guard). These toured the country arguing that Mao’s policies were the best
· It was an incredible propaganda exercise in which Mao was trying to renew revolutionary fervor
· It brought chaos and something close to civil war
· The masses were dangerous because they denounced and physically attacked anybody in authority. Millions of people were disgraced and ruined
· By 67 extremists along the Red Guard were out of control
· Mao recognized in private his mistakes but in public he blamed his advisers and the Red Guard members. These were arrested and executed for committing excesses
· At the part conference in April 69 the Cultural Revolution was formally ended and Mao was declared free of all blame
· Lin Biao one of Mao’s most reliable supporters and Defense Minister was blamed by Mao of over enthusiasm of the Red Guards.
· Sources claim that Mao tried to get rid of Biao through making him the scapegoat because Biao was thought to maneuver Mao into retiring.
· He was accused of plotting to assassinate Mao and was killed in a car crash in 71, as the officials said, while trying to flee to Russia.
· The Cultural revolution caused great disruption, ruined millions of lives and probably held up China’s economy by ten years
· In spite of this there was some economic recovery during the 70’s and China did a great job since 49
· In China:
1. Grain production had at least kept pace with the rapid increase of the population
2. Industrial development had tripled steel production, laid the foundation for a significant oil industry
3. Created a machine building industry from scratch
4. Provided the base for China to become a nuclear power
5. Light industry provided a reasonable flow of consumer goods by comparison with the Soviet Union
6. the most surprising development of Mao’s policies during his last years was in foreign affairs, when Mao and Zhou Enlai decided to improve relations with the USA.
18.2 Life after Mao
a) A power of struggle followed by the death of Mao in 1976
· Hua Guofeng was named by Mao as his successor, Deng was too liberal and the Gang of Four which were more Maoists than Mao himself
· After a while of cooperation with Hua and after he resigned, Deng was undisputed leader while the Gang of Four was put on trial and accused of crimes during te Cultural Revolution
b) there was a period of dramatic policy changes
· many changes introduced during the Cultural Revolution were reversed :
1. Revolutionary committees set up to run local government were abolished and replaced by more democratically elected groups
2. property confiscated from former capitalists was returned to survivors
3. there was more religious freedom for intellectuals to express themselves in literature and the arts
· In economic matters Deng wanted technical and financial help from the west in order to modernize industry, agriculture, science and technology .
Loans were accepted from foreign governments and banks, and they received new equipment
In 80 China joined the IMF and the World Bank
State paid higher prices to the communes and reduced taxes in order to stimulate efficiency and output. These actions gave success: grain output reached a record level (79) and many peasants became prosperous
c) Demands for more radical reform: the democracy Wall
· In November 78 there was a poster campaign in Beijing and other cities, often in support of Den Xiaoping.
· Soon there were massive demonstrations for more reform, so the marches had to be banned
· However, the democracy wall remained. Here, the people attacked Mao, and published the wish and need of open speech, representation of non communist parties in the National People’s Congress, the freedom to change jobs and to travel abroad and the abolition of the communes
· This infuriated Deng because the Wall was built mainly to criticize the Gang of Four, the Wall was abolished and law and order would be restored
d) Modernization and its problems
· Deng together with his protégés were determined to bring about modernization as soon as possible
· Zhao, one of Deng’s protégés, gave the peasants more advantages. The land, although officially owned by the state, was divided and allocated to individual peasants, which were allowed to keep most of the profits. This improved the living standards of many people
· Prices of surplus grain, pork, cotton and vegetables would be allowed to fluctuate on the free market
· The modernization caused a sharp fall in China’s economy and the annual rate of inflation began to rise, reaching 22% in 86.
e) The thoughts of Deng Xiaoping
· Deng explained his idea for the future. His aim was to enable his people to get richer
· By the year 2000, if all went well, the average annual income per head should have risen to near too 700£
· The party must withdraw from administrative tasks, issue fewer instructions, and allow more initiative at the lower levels
· Only capitalist investments could create the conditions in which China could become a prosperous, modernized state
18.3 Tiananmen Square, 1989, and the crisis of communism
a) the crisis of 1987
Deng had always to keep an eye on the traditional, conservative or Maoist member of the Politburo , who were still powerful and might be able to get rid of Deng if his economic reforms failed or if party control seemed to be slipping
Deng provided a great balancing act between the rights wing members and the Maoists, he encouraged the criticism of the youngsters only to a point, so he could then drop some of the oldest and most inefficient party bureaucrats
The dilemma facing the right wingers as Zhao and Deng was: was it possible to offer the people a choice in buying and selling and yet deny them any choice in other areas such as polices and political parties?
Many western powers and Gorbachev thought this alternative would be impossible, but if the economic reforms proved successful, Deng and Zhao could turn out to be right.
b) Tiananmen Square 1989
· Their economic reforms ran into problems during 88 and 89, inflation grew and wages (state associations) lagged well behind prices
· Encouraged by the visit of Gorbachev the students started a new demonstration in Tiananmen Square on April 17th 1989
· The students were demanding political reform, democracy and the end of the communist party
· The people really thought that they could perform and realize their demands, and they were sure that no government in the world could resist a popular rising of this magnitude
· It certainly looked that the government had lost control and might soon give up
· However, thousands of troops were brought in (3rd and 4th June), the army using paratroopers, tanks and infantry attacked the students. Between 1500 and 300 students were killed and Tiananmen Square was under government control again
· Demonstrations in other cities were also dispersed
· Zhao was removed from his position and replaced with Zemin (more neutral)
· Prime Minster Li Peng became the leading figure
· Many students were arrested, killed and executed
· Deng and the hardliners were sure that they took the right decision
· Simultaneously in the USSR, communism fell
· The Chinese leadership could congratulate itself on avoiding Gorbachev’s failures and preserving communism
c) China since 1899
China’s leaders were still committed to progressive open door economic polices
They hoped that this polices would turn the people prosperous and through this way, make the people forget their desire fro democracy
During the 90’s China’s economy was booming
From 91 to 96 China led the world with average GDP increases of 11.4% and living standards were rising fast
Especially Eastern China, which was successful with lots of foreign investments and plenty of consumer goods for sale. On the other hand, the west was not taking part at the same rate
A new Five Year Plan, started in March 96’, aimed to keep the economic boom on course by increasing grain production, keeping average GDP growth at 8% and spreading wealth more evenly among the regions
Deng died in 97, Peng and Zemin were the new leading figures
Internal criticism seemed to have disappeared, partially because China’s economic success and there was no mention of economic reform
Summary of events
After the communist victory Mao set about rebuilding
At the first there was Russian advice and aid, in the late 1950’s relations cooled and Russian economic aid was reduced
In 58 Mao introduced the Great Leap Forward, in which communism was introduced. The emphasis was put on decentralization, agriculture, communes and contact with the masses.
Mao became critical to Russia because, in his view, the Russians went away from the Marxist Principles and he blamed them that they followed the capitalist road
During the 60’s these disagreements caused a serious drift in world communism , which were only healed after Gorbachev became a Russian leader
The cultural revolution (66-69), meant that Mao succeeded to crush all the opposition and to keep the party’s development along Marxist Leninist lines
After Mao’s death (76) there was a power of struggle from which Deng emerged as undisputed leader (81).
Dang’s policies were moderating Mao’s ideas, were less conservative and Deng looked towards Japan and the West for ideas and support.
In 87 Deng wad forced to slow down his reforms because of the big opposition of Mao’s supporters, which accused Deng of following the capitalist road.
In April 89, the Chinese were encouraged by Gorbachev’s policies, e.g. glasnost and the revolutions that took place in Eastern Europe. The Chinese started a revolution in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They demanded democracy and end of corruption and CCP.
The Armies moved in, crushing the opposition and restored order. The communism and the economic reforms continued with some successes, but there was no political reform. Deng continued as a supreme leader until his death in 97 (age of 92)
18.1 How successful was Mao in dealing with China’s problem?
a) What were the problems facing Mao?
· The problems facing China were complex
· The country was devastated after the civil war with Japan: railways, roads, canals, and dykes had been destroyed and there were chronic food shortages, industry was backward, agriculture was inefficient and incapable, inflation was huge
· To satisfy the supporter’s demands was crucial for Mao
· It was difficult for Mao to control and organize such a vast country
· Mao looked closely at Stalin’s methods and experimented to find out what would work in China and what would not.
b) The constitution of 1950 (officially adopted 54’)
· Every 4 years the people elected members of the National People’s Congress (the final authority of legislation)
· The State Council and the Chairman of the Republic were chosen by the Congress, whose function was to look after that the laws were carried out properly and that the countries policies went ahead
· The State Council elected the Politburo, which took all the main decisions.
· The whole system was dominated by the communist party and only party members could be elected.
· The system was important because if provided the country with a central government, the first in many years. The system is today almost unchanged.
c) Agricultural changes
· These transformed China from an inefficient country to one of large co operative like Russia.
· In the first stages land was taken from land owners and given to peasants, also sometimes with violence. It is important to know that some historians claim that the violence never occurred.
· The next step was achieved without violence. Peasants were persuaded to join collective farms (not like in Russia).
· By 1956 about 95% of all peasants were collectivized in order to increase food production
d) Industrial changes
· This begun with the government nationalizing most businesses.
· In 1953 a Five Year Plan of the heavy industry started, where the Russians helped with cash, equipment and advisers.
· Before it was complete Mao started to have doubts about the Five Year Plan, if this Plan was suited for China. Mao could claim that under his leadership China recovered from the ravages of the war, full communication has been restored, inflation was under control an the economy looked better.
e) The Hundred Flowers Campaign (57)
· This developed from the industrialization which produced a new class of technicians and engineers. These were called the party cadres.
· The cadres were groups that organized the masses politically and economically e.g. collectivization of farms.
· Mao decided first open discussion of the problems might improve relations between cadres, experts or intellectuals.
· These created only criticism and opposition
· Mao called off the campaign and clamped down on his critics
· The campaign showed that the actual opposition still existed.
· Mao was convinced that he had to consolidate the advance of socialism. He introduced the Great Leap Forward.
f) The Great Leap Forward
· This was a policy that would face the Chinese situation and was not based on Russian experience.
· You can say that The Great Leap Forward wad an extension of the Five Year Plan.
· It was mostly concentrated on agriculture that was ineffective. This would increase output
· Its most important features were:
The introduction of communes
Units larges than collective farms, containing up to 75 000 people, divided into brigades and teams with an elected council.
They ran their own collective farms and factories, carried out most of the functions of local government within the commune and undertook special projects.
A complete change of emphasis in industry
· Instead of aiming for large scale works of the type seen in Russian and the West, smaller factories were set up on the country side to provide machinery for agriculture
· Mao talked about 600 000 backyard steel furnaces organized and managed by the communes, which also undertook to build roads, canals, dams, reservoirs and irrigation channels.
· At first the Leap was a great failure, which was caused also because of the Russian aid withdrawal, lack of experience among the cadres. Mao’s prestige suffered because of the failure and he was forced to resign as Chairman
· In the long term the importance of the Great Leap forward became clear, both industrial and agricultural production increased substantially and China could manage to feed its massive population without famine
· The communes proved to be a successful innovation, even more affective then collective farms. This gave the government chance to keep in touch with the local opinion
· The crucial decision that had been taken by China is that they would remain an agricultural country with small scale industry spread around the country side
· The economy would be labor intensive, which means that it relied on massive numbers of workers instead of laborsaving machines. This give also anyone a job, it enabled China to avoid the growing unemployment problems, as I happened in the West.
· Other benefits were the spread of education and welfare services and of the women’s role in the society.
g) The Cultural Revolution (66-69)
· This was Mao’s attempt to keep the revolution and the Great Leap forward on a pure Marxist course
· In the early 1960 the successes of the Great Leap forward were not visible and opposition to Mao grew
· The right wing members of the party believed that incentives were necessary if the communes were to function efficiently. The right wingers also believed that China needed an expert managerial class to push forward the industrialization on the Russian model, instead of relying on cadres
· To the Maoists this was unacceptable, it was exactly this Mao condemned the Russians for (taking the capitalist road)
· Between 63 and 66 there was a great public debate about which course to follow
· Mao used his position as a chairman so he launched a campaign to save the revolution
· He called this as the proletarian Cultural Revolution. He appealed to the masses, which were mostly students (the Red Guard). These toured the country arguing that Mao’s policies were the best
· It was an incredible propaganda exercise in which Mao was trying to renew revolutionary fervor
· It brought chaos and something close to civil war
· The masses were dangerous because they denounced and physically attacked anybody in authority. Millions of people were disgraced and ruined
· By 67 extremists along the Red Guard were out of control
· Mao recognized in private his mistakes but in public he blamed his advisers and the Red Guard members. These were arrested and executed for committing excesses
· At the part conference in April 69 the Cultural Revolution was formally ended and Mao was declared free of all blame
· Lin Biao one of Mao’s most reliable supporters and Defense Minister was blamed by Mao of over enthusiasm of the Red Guards.
· Sources claim that Mao tried to get rid of Biao through making him the scapegoat because Biao was thought to maneuver Mao into retiring.
· He was accused of plotting to assassinate Mao and was killed in a car crash in 71, as the officials said, while trying to flee to Russia.
· The Cultural revolution caused great disruption, ruined millions of lives and probably held up China’s economy by ten years
· In spite of this there was some economic recovery during the 70’s and China did a great job since 49
· In China:
1. Grain production had at least kept pace with the rapid increase of the population
2. Industrial development had tripled steel production, laid the foundation for a significant oil industry
3. Created a machine building industry from scratch
4. Provided the base for China to become a nuclear power
5. Light industry provided a reasonable flow of consumer goods by comparison with the Soviet Union
6. the most surprising development of Mao’s policies during his last years was in foreign affairs, when Mao and Zhou Enlai decided to improve relations with the USA.
18.2 Life after Mao
a) A power of struggle followed by the death of Mao in 1976
· Hua Guofeng was named by Mao as his successor, Deng was too liberal and the Gang of Four which were more Maoists than Mao himself
· After a while of cooperation with Hua and after he resigned, Deng was undisputed leader while the Gang of Four was put on trial and accused of crimes during te Cultural Revolution
b) there was a period of dramatic policy changes
· many changes introduced during the Cultural Revolution were reversed :
1. Revolutionary committees set up to run local government were abolished and replaced by more democratically elected groups
2. property confiscated from former capitalists was returned to survivors
3. there was more religious freedom for intellectuals to express themselves in literature and the arts
· In economic matters Deng wanted technical and financial help from the west in order to modernize industry, agriculture, science and technology .
Loans were accepted from foreign governments and banks, and they received new equipment
In 80 China joined the IMF and the World Bank
State paid higher prices to the communes and reduced taxes in order to stimulate efficiency and output. These actions gave success: grain output reached a record level (79) and many peasants became prosperous
c) Demands for more radical reform: the democracy Wall
· In November 78 there was a poster campaign in Beijing and other cities, often in support of Den Xiaoping.
· Soon there were massive demonstrations for more reform, so the marches had to be banned
· However, the democracy wall remained. Here, the people attacked Mao, and published the wish and need of open speech, representation of non communist parties in the National People’s Congress, the freedom to change jobs and to travel abroad and the abolition of the communes
· This infuriated Deng because the Wall was built mainly to criticize the Gang of Four, the Wall was abolished and law and order would be restored
d) Modernization and its problems
· Deng together with his protégés were determined to bring about modernization as soon as possible
· Zhao, one of Deng’s protégés, gave the peasants more advantages. The land, although officially owned by the state, was divided and allocated to individual peasants, which were allowed to keep most of the profits. This improved the living standards of many people
· Prices of surplus grain, pork, cotton and vegetables would be allowed to fluctuate on the free market
· The modernization caused a sharp fall in China’s economy and the annual rate of inflation began to rise, reaching 22% in 86.
e) The thoughts of Deng Xiaoping
· Deng explained his idea for the future. His aim was to enable his people to get richer
· By the year 2000, if all went well, the average annual income per head should have risen to near too 700£
· The party must withdraw from administrative tasks, issue fewer instructions, and allow more initiative at the lower levels
· Only capitalist investments could create the conditions in which China could become a prosperous, modernized state
18.3 Tiananmen Square, 1989, and the crisis of communism
a) the crisis of 1987
Deng had always to keep an eye on the traditional, conservative or Maoist member of the Politburo , who were still powerful and might be able to get rid of Deng if his economic reforms failed or if party control seemed to be slipping
Deng provided a great balancing act between the rights wing members and the Maoists, he encouraged the criticism of the youngsters only to a point, so he could then drop some of the oldest and most inefficient party bureaucrats
The dilemma facing the right wingers as Zhao and Deng was: was it possible to offer the people a choice in buying and selling and yet deny them any choice in other areas such as polices and political parties?
Many western powers and Gorbachev thought this alternative would be impossible, but if the economic reforms proved successful, Deng and Zhao could turn out to be right.
b) Tiananmen Square 1989
· Their economic reforms ran into problems during 88 and 89, inflation grew and wages (state associations) lagged well behind prices
· Encouraged by the visit of Gorbachev the students started a new demonstration in Tiananmen Square on April 17th 1989
· The students were demanding political reform, democracy and the end of the communist party
· The people really thought that they could perform and realize their demands, and they were sure that no government in the world could resist a popular rising of this magnitude
· It certainly looked that the government had lost control and might soon give up
· However, thousands of troops were brought in (3rd and 4th June), the army using paratroopers, tanks and infantry attacked the students. Between 1500 and 300 students were killed and Tiananmen Square was under government control again
· Demonstrations in other cities were also dispersed
· Zhao was removed from his position and replaced with Zemin (more neutral)
· Prime Minster Li Peng became the leading figure
· Many students were arrested, killed and executed
· Deng and the hardliners were sure that they took the right decision
· Simultaneously in the USSR, communism fell
· The Chinese leadership could congratulate itself on avoiding Gorbachev’s failures and preserving communism
c) China since 1899
China’s leaders were still committed to progressive open door economic polices
They hoped that this polices would turn the people prosperous and through this way, make the people forget their desire fro democracy
During the 90’s China’s economy was booming
From 91 to 96 China led the world with average GDP increases of 11.4% and living standards were rising fast
Especially Eastern China, which was successful with lots of foreign investments and plenty of consumer goods for sale. On the other hand, the west was not taking part at the same rate
A new Five Year Plan, started in March 96’, aimed to keep the economic boom on course by increasing grain production, keeping average GDP growth at 8% and spreading wealth more evenly among the regions
Deng died in 97, Peng and Zemin were the new leading figures
Internal criticism seemed to have disappeared, partially because China’s economic success and there was no mention of economic reform
The spread of communism outside Europe and international relations
Answering the questions
The spread of communism outside Europe and international relations
Why did North Korea invade S. Korea and what did the USA do about it?
There are several factors that affected the North Korean invasion. I can start with the end of WW2, when the country became in North a Russian government and in the south an American government. Korea was a part of worries of the superpowers, exactly like Germany, Austria and later on Vietnam. Since no agreement has been done, the country remained divided in to parts along the 38th parallel and in 1949 the Russian and American troops withdrew, leaving the country in a desperate situation. One year later N. Korea invaded south.
The communist leader of north, called Kim 2 Sung may have been affected by a speech made by the American Secretary of State, Dean Acheson. The speech was about areas around the Pacific that USA intended to defend, but nothing was mentioned about S. Korea. Kim felt free to invade the southern part of the country. His decision was encouraged by the USSR, which provided N. Korea with military equipment. It is possible that the Russians supported the N. Koreans to test the willpower of the new president Truman and to strengthen their position in the Pacific. Not only the Russian aid helped a lot, but also the similar situation that was going on in China, which was facing Taiwan, determined Kim Sung to invade S. Korea.
USA considered this attack as a part of the communist expansion, so Truman was sure that American resistance would the greatest thing to do. He moved his troops from Japan, to S.Korea in order to support the southern part, not only economically as before but also with troops. This move happened before UN’s decision, but when North Korean refused to withdraw their troops from south, like UN ordered, the United Nations asked member states to support south. USSR, that was boycotting meetings in protest against UN refusal to allow Mao’s regime to be represented, was not present otherwise they would vetoed.
Anyhow, USA and fourteen other countries, under the command of MacArthur, were present in South in order to maintain peace and to resist communism.
What were the results of the war?
The war in Korea was the first direct conflict of the Cold War. The results in Korea itself were a disaster, a huge amount of people were killed and left homeless.
Both superpowers considered the results of the war on their own side. Truman thought that the world understood the American force and how they could contain communism. The United Nations was sure of the fact that the world had understood their authority and power, while USSR considered the UN as a tool of the capitalists.
A new American problem arose after the war, the problem was communist China, which had shown its performance and which was now considered as a superpower as well. The American fear was visible, their relations with China were now strained and the most obvious signs were the defensive agreements with Australia, New Zeeland, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines, which later joined in an organization called SEATO. It was quite obvious that USA wanted to encircle China with bases.
As a result of this war, both USA and USSR wanted to build up alliances in Asia and in Europe.
Why did Castro come to power and how were Cuba’s foreign relations affected?
To start with, the American influence in the country, which started back in 1898 when USA got rid of the Spanish control in Cuba. This influence became bigger and bigger throughout the years, American troops remained in the country to maintain stability and the American aid became so big that it was said that the US controlled the Cuban economy. Cuba reached a point when it was too dependent of the sugar export and when only a few countries bought their sugar.
Another factor that provoked the Cuban anger was the unemployment and the lack of a real political system. In 1952 Batista seized power illegally and his system was corrupt and brutal and there were no signs of a peaceful revolution. The people wanted a new system that everybody could take part of.
Castro wanted to evacuate the corruption and Batista and had plans that included social reforms.
At his first attempt to take over the control in Cuba, Castro failed and was imprisoned for two years. The second time he began a campaign of guerilla warfare and sabotage in the cities and 1959 Castro became leader. The relations between USA and Cuba worsened before Castro pronounced himself a communist but after Castro nationalized American owned estates and factories in Cuba. As Eisenhower threatened the import of sugar, USSR and Cuba signed a trade agreement, doing so the relations between USSR and Cuba improved. In 1961 USA broke all relations with Cuba, while USSR started to give the economical aid.
Because of the communism in Cuba, the country was expelled fro OAS, because they were suspicious towards the Cuban government, but simultaneously after the Cuban crises, the relation between USA and Cuba remained cool.
What caused the civil war in S. Vietnam and why did the USA get involved?
Firstly, one of the most important factors was the president of S. Vietnam itself. He lost popularity among the people because he was Catholic (and most of the people were Buddhists), something that gave the Buddhists a feeling of discrimination. According to the people, he was corrupt, under too much American influence and did not start any land reform, as the people, which were inspired by China and N. Korea, wished.
Another thing card in the game was the NLF (Vietminh was only a part of it). The NLF wanted to introduce reforms and to negotiate for a united Vietnam. Seeing that Diem, the leader of S. Vietnam could not cope with the situation, the Americans decided to increase it military presence in S. Vietnam. After failing in Cuba and N. Korea, they felt it necessary to increase their aid in Vietnam. In public USA said that the reason helping Vietnam is to protect the independence there, but in reality they considered Vietnam a part of the domino territory.
How did the Vietnam War develop and why did the Americans fail?
Because the Vietnam War was so long, many presidents ruled USA during the period of war, each with new and own policies.
Kennedy (61-63) wanted to withstand only the guerillas. 16000, equipment and choppers were sent as aid. He isolated the peasant population, in a campaign called Safe Village, and thought that through this method the guerillas would be left outside. This failed because the guerillas were peasants as well; they continued their fight inside the villages.
Johnson (63-69) thought that Vietcong were controlled by Minh, so he started to bomb N. Vietnam. More than 500 000 troops arrived in South.
At home, he had a lot of pressure, and when with an offensive the Vietcong succeeded to capture 80% of the towns and villages in the country, the situation seemed tough. He had no intention of withdrawing, but he did stop his bombing in North (68).
Nixon (69-74) knew that US population would not allow more troops in S. Vietnam. He came with a policy called Vietnamization, which would support S. Vietnam with arms and training for defense.
71’ half of the American troops withdrew and Nixon began to bomb N. Vietnam again, and Indochina as well.
He was under pressure of the world and under the own population. No one liked his chemical weapons, his heavy bombing etc.
In 73’ the Americans withdrew, it was impossible to defeat the Vietcong, also because they were fighting on own territory and because they had no uniforms, so the American soldiers could not see the difference. The aid of weapons from China, Russia, and N. Korea, combined with the Vietnamese nationalism made Vietcong undefeatable. As example, instead of taking care of the casualties caused during the US bombing, they replied with evacuations of cities and rebuilding factories outside the towns.
Who was Salvador Allente, how did he come to power and why was he overthrown?’
In 70, a Marxist doctor of medicine from a middle class background won the presidential election as a leader of the UP (Unidad Popular). He was the world’s first Marxist leader that was voted through democratic election.
He became elected also because of the failure of the leader before him, whose name was Frei. The election of Frei (64) brought luck in the beginning, he made several successes, he:
Decreased the inflation with 12%
The rich had to pay their taxes instead of evading them
360 000 new houses were built
The numbers of schools were doubled
Some limited land reforms were introduced
1200 private holdings which were run inefficiently were confiscated and given to landless peasants
The US admired him so much that, they gave him economic aid. 67’ his luck started to turn against him: (STILL TALKING ABOUT FREI)
The left thought his land reforms too cautious and wanted full nationalization of the copper industry (Chile’s most important export), whereas the right thought he had gone too far.
In 69’ there was a serious drought (torka), in which 30% of the harvest was lost, large quantities had to be imported, something that gave birth to inflation. He and the government shot down the mine strikes.
Allente inspired confidence (elegant and cultured) and thought that communism can be succeeded without a violent revolution.
Though when Allente came to power did many improvements for the Chilean economical, labor, medical and educational system, he started to face major problems. Some of them were:
Land distribution caused a fall in the agricultural production
Mainly because farmers whose land was due to be taken stopped sowing and often slaughtered their cattle, this caused food shortages and inflation.
Private investors were frightened off and the government became short of funds to carry out social reforms as fast as they planned.
Copper nationalization was disappointing:
Long strikes for higher wages took place, affecting the production a lot + world price of copper decreased suddenly with 30%
The US disapproved strongly of Allende’s policies and other S. American governments were nervous in case the Chileans tried to export their revolution
Next elections were due in September 76’. He did not seem to be able to stand, but no Marxist regime hade ever let itself be voted out of power.
The opposition feared that Allende was planning to change constitution, so the opposition groups drew together to take action before Allende did.
The right organized a massive strike and won support of the army + staged a military cup. This was organized by leading generals, with Pinochet as the head.
Left wing leaders were imprisoned and killed, Allente as well.
CIA, helped by the Brazilian government played a vital role in the preparations of the cup, since the both feared the spread of communism in Latin America.
The new Chilean government was soon provoked criticism from outside world for brutal treatment of political convicts.
The USA stopped their aid.
Pinochet regime had some economic successes by bringing down the inflation.
In 89’ he allowed presidential elections and in 90’ Aylwin was allowed to become president
Why did détente come about from the early 70’s?
How did arms race play a part of détente?
The both super powers became fearful of the results of a possible nuclear war, where in reality the actual winner could not be decided. The both sides were stimulated by the effects of the Vietnam War, but of course had their own reasons as well:
The USSR understood the expense of the nuclear catch up.
They needed to devote more attention and resources to the satellite states, which all were suffering economical problems.
Simultaneously, the relations between them and China were not of the best nature, they did not want to be left behind while the relations between USA and China improved.
The Americans understood that there must be a better way of coping with the communism. Some Congressmen talked about returning to the isolation again.
The Chinese were anxious about their isolation, American intensions in Vietnam and about the bad relations with USSR.
The nations of Western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war would broke out.
Brandt, chancellor of West Germany (69’) tried to improve relations with Eastern Europe through Ostpolitik.
How have relations between the USA and China been during the period of détente?
Since the Korean War, the relations between those two were negative. In 71’ the Chinese unexpectedly invited an American table tennis team to visit China, USA responded by calling off their veto of Chinese entry in the UN. (71’)
Still a problem in Taiwan
How have relations between the USSR and China been during the period of détente?
The relations were bead because the Chinese did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, particularly his belief in peaceful co existence and that it was possible to achieve communism by methods other than violent.
They accused USSR for braking Lenin’s rules in order to suit their own needs, in reward Russia decreased economic aid to China.
At the end of the 70’s, when the relations between USA and China improved, it seemed that both Russia and China were vying for American support against each other, for the leadership of world communism. The Chinese now demanded their territories back, with Russia took.
There were also disputes about backing Vietnam who attacked Manchuria.
In 84’ the Chinese set their grievances against USSR:
The presence of Russian troops in Afghanistan
Soviet backing off Vietnamese troops in Cambodia
The soviet troops build along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia and Manchuria.
Gorbachev decided to improve these relations. He:
Five year agreement on trade and cooperation was signed (July 85’)
Regular contact took place between the governments
Formal reconciliation took place in May 89’, when Gorbatchev visited Beijing
89’ Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia
How did international relations changed since the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe?
The cold war was over
In 90’ the Warsaw Pact and the NATO countries signed a treaty of no longer enemies and weapons would only be used al self defense.
New conflicts soon arose
Nationalism started to grow as a sign of communist grip under a long time. Czechoslovakia divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia
Conflicts between Azerbaijan and Armenia arose, because of territory
Yugoslavia divided into 5 separate states
As the states of Western Europe were moving closer to the European Community, those of Eastern Europe were breaking up into even smaller units.
Nuclear Weapon supervision
Countries considered as unstable or irresponsible governments might use the nuclear weapons. This is why supervision was needed over nuclear, biological and chemical weapons
Economical problems
E. Europe had now to learn hot to deal with the economy, from a command economy to a free market economy. They needed to plan their economy carefully with the help of Western Europe; otherwise stability would be hard to be created.
Nationalism and economic unrest could cause a write wing backlash, which could have been dangerous.
They were concerned about a possible income for Russia would have been the commerce with nuclear weapons with smaller countries.
The unification of Germany created some problems
The poles were afraid that the Germans would take back the area east of the river of Odder and Neisse.
Polish immigrants were seen as a problem.
Relations between the western allies.
Relations between Japan, USA, and Western Europe were good before they were united. They had the same aim: to withstand communism
USA, for example refused to provide troops for the UN peacekeeping forces, leaving Bosnia the burden to the other member states.
Post War Europe and Cold War
What happened at the Potsdam Conference and Yalta Conference? When did they take place and why where they important in a “cold war” context?
a)The Yalta Conference (Feb 45)
Was held in Russia, Crimea, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill were there. They should plan the post war time:
A new organization: to be called UN, should replace the failures of the League of Nations.
Germany was to be divided into zones. Russian, American and British (later French), while Berlin would be divided in the same way.
Austria was to be divided in the same way.
Free elections would be allowed in Eastern Europe
Stalin promised to join the war against Japan, if he received some territory of Manchuria and some land of Sakhalin Island
Their biggest problem was Poland:
When the Russians drove the Germans out of Poland, they set up a communist government in Lublin (even though the real Polish government was exiled in London).
At Yalta, they agreed that some of the London based government should be allowed to join the Lublin government, if the Russian in return would allowed to keep a strip of eastern Poland, which she annexed since 39’. Stalin demanded the whole German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. The west was not happy about this.
b) The Potsdam (July 45)
It revealed a distinct cooling off in relations. Stalin, Truman and Churchill were present. But Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee (the new British Labor Prime Minister, after election victory)
The war was over, but no agreement was reached about the long term of Germany.
Truman and Churchill were angry because the Russians occupied the area east of Odder and Neisse. The area was now ruled by pro communist Polish government. 5 millions Germans were expelled. This was not agreed at Yalta
Truman did not inform Stalin about the A bomb. 2 days after Potsdam, USA bombed Japan, the war ended quickly (10 August) without Russian aid, though the Russian declared war to Japan (8 August) and invaded Manchuria. They annexed southern part of Sakhalin, but they were not allowed in the occupation of Japan.
Why did a rift grow between East and West / Communist and Capitalist block?
The very first early rift came about when USSR created an A bomb for their own. This created a process which involved the following:
Whatever one side did was viewed by the other side as aggressive. For example Poland and Germany, which the superpowers argued about, and no permanent agreement could be reached.
Account for the main post war settlements
What various reasons may account for Europe becoming ideologically vulnerable at extremist at the end of WW2?
Explain the ideas of expansionism and containment in a clod war context.
The cold war was: instead of open fighting, the rival powers attacked each other with propaganda, economic measures and with a general policy of non- co-operation. The last mentioned meant that both superpowers gathered allies around them:
USSR: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (49). N. Korea became a communist government in 48, and in 49 Mao became a dictator in China.
USA: fostered Japan as an ally. Britain and 14 other European countries worked with USA as well. Also Turkey was given economic aid to build an anti communist protection.
What methods did the USSR and USA revert to in their expansionism and containment?
The USA’s actual policy was to withstand, in any situation and any time, the communism expansion. But sometimes, the USA called this in public as an independence protection.
Russia on the other hand, claimed that it suffered losses during the war, it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states and that these relations were important as self defense for the state. A good example is the polish territory during the Yalta and Potsdam conference. He claimed the soviet rule of the German area east of the rivers Odder and Neisse, only because this has always been a corridor for German attack against Russia.
The both powers, as I mentioned above, gathered allies, democratically or not. To attract countries on their side, the powers used the economy as key. They offered doctrines and help, that would firstly help those countries economically and in the same time gather the as allies. The Marshall Plane, the Truman Doctrine and the Cominform are good examples.
What was the Berlin Airlift and why did it come about?
It brought the Cold War to its first climax, this because of the disagreement over the treatment of Germany.
As agreed at Yalta and Potsdam, Germany and Berlin were each divided into four zones. While the west tried to do their best to organize economic and political recovery in their parts, Stalin determined to make Germany pay for everything they destroyed. He treated his zone as a satellite, draining its resources away to Russia.
Early in 48, because of the Marshall aid, they merged to form a single economic unit, something that was the opposite of the Russian situation in East Germany.
The west wanted to unite the whole country, but Stalin saw this as dangerous. He felt scared of the now merged German zone.
In 48 the west ended price controls in Berlin. USSR though that this was an impossible situation because they felt it impossible to have 2 different currencies in the same city + that the USSR was embarrassed of the big contrast between West and East Berlin.
The Russians closed all the road, rail and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany. The West was sure that if they would withdraw, the situation would end with a Russian attack in the West Berlin.
The west decided to fly the supplies in the area, and over the next 2 months 2 million tons supplies were given to the West Berliners to cope with the winter.
The Russians admitted failure by lifting the blockade (May 49)
The results of the affair:
It gave a psychological increase to the western powers, but it did worsen the relations with USSR a lot.
It caused the western powers to coordinate their defense by the formation of NATO
Since no compromises were made, Germany would remain divided for the foreseeable future.
How do the Korean War and the German question fit into the development of the Cold War?
In the both cases (and even several examples as Austria and Vietnam), the both superpowers came near each other to withstand the opposite power. In the case of Korea, the intervention was brutal and direct, but in the case of Germany the conflict was not directly.
The both powers wanted, trough the both examples, to tighten their grip in certain areas, attack each other with propaganda, economic measures and general policy of non co-operation.
What regional defense organizations came about to protect Western Europe?
NATO
(Militarily) was formed in April 49’. Its members would treat any attack of all the members as an own. This was a highly significant development: the Americans abandoned their policy of no entangling alliances and for the first time had pledged themselves in advance military action
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plane ( mainly financial)
These can be counted as organizations that would defense Western Europe.
Problems with relations after WW2
What caused the Cold War? Which side is to blame?
a) Differences of principle.
The communists system: their ideas came from Marx.
The wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
The economy should be central planned and the interests and well-being of the working classes safeguarded by state social policies.
The capitalist system:
They wanted to operate on the basis of private ownership of a country’s wealth. The driving forces should be private enterprise in the pursuit of making profits and the preservation of the power of private wealth.
Ever since 1917, the capitalists were afraid of communism spread, which would end the private ownership, political power by the wealthy classes. An example of the capitalist fear was the Russian revolution. USA, Britain, France and Japan sent troops in order to protect the anti communists.
b) Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions
His aim was to take profit of the military situation, to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
As the Nazis collapsed they occupied territories of Romania, Poland and Finland. The west was alerted; they thought that this was intent of spreading communism over as much of the globe as possible.
d) US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet government
· During the war, Lend Lease took place. This was American aid to Russia during the war. This meant that Roosevelt trusted Stalin.
· After Roosevelt’s death (April 45), Truman that was suspicious toughened his attitude towards communism.
· A theory shows that Truman dropped the bomb over Japan, to show Russia what might have happened if they would go too far.
· Stalin suspected Truman for destroying communism.
· Stalin did not know about the existence of the A bomb, just shortly before its use in Japan.
· The west had the bomb and USSR did not.
Which side was to blame?
Orthodox view:
During the 50’s, mostly American historians blamed Stalin for the Cold War. The formation of NATO and the American entry in the Korean War were the west’s self-defense against communism aggression.
The revisionist view:
During the 70’s and 80’s some Americans historians argued that Stalin was not to be blamed. USSR suffered losses during the war and it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states. They even claimed that USA had to give more understanding to the USSR.
This view was affected by the Vietnam War, which made the people to reconsider the American attitude and to notice the hostility towards communism.
The post revisionist view
During the 80’s this view was put forward by some American historians. This is because they had accesses to new sources and archives that were not able before. They argued that the both sides have to be blamed for the Cold War.
They believed that:
USA: and its economic policies (Marshall Aid) were due to increase American influence in Europe.
USSR: Stalin had no long term plans of spreading communism but he was opportunist, who would take profit of every situation as possible.
Both powers created an atmosphere that was interpreted in two ways. What was claimed as necessary for self defense by one side was considered by the other side as evidence of aggressive intent.
War was avoided because the Americans were reluctant to use their bomb
What were the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan?
The Truman Doctrine
· The idea came from Greece, where communists wanted to overthrow the monarchy.
· British troops helped the Greeks (44’), and the west felt now the same about Eastern Europe.
· Ernest Bevin (British foreign minister announced march 47): the USA would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities and by outside pressures.
As a result: Greece and Turkey were helped. Turkey, which also seemed under threat, gained an aid of 60 million dollars.
· Truman Doctrine showed that USA had no intention of returning to their isolation, as after WW1. They would withstand communism all around the globe.
The Marshall Plane
· Announced in June 47’, was an economic extension of Truman Doctrine.
· American secretary of state, Marshall, produced his European Recovery Programme (ECR). He declared:
Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty and desperation throughout the world.
· One of his aims was to promote the economic recovery of Europe, to ensure American exports. But his main aim was political: if Western Europe had economic problems, it was more likely for the communists to gain control in those areas.
· By September 16 countries joined this.
· USSR considered the Marshal Plane as dollar imperialism, as a device for gaining control of Western Europe and also as for interfering in Eastern Europe. Even though the aid could have been given to the countries of Eastern Europe as well, USSR rejected the offer for Russia and its Satellite states + Czechoslovakia.
· The iron curtain seemed a reality.
What was the Cominform?
The Cominform
· Was the communist response ( September 47)
· Was done to draw together the European communist parties.
· All the satellites states were members+ Italian and French communist parties were represented.
· The aim of this was to tighten the Russian grip on the satellites.
· It was demanded to be Russian style communism. Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized.
· It was expected trade routs between the satellites states and all contacts with non-communist countries were discouraged. Yugoslavia objected and was expelled (48’), though it remained communist.
· Molotov Plan was introduced (49’) to offer Russian aid to the satellites
· Comecon was also set up in order to coordinate Russian economic policies.
Why could it be said that there was a thaw after 1953 in the Cold War and to what extent was there actually a thaw?
a) What were the first sign?
b) What concessions were made by Russians?
c) What was the signing of the Austrian State Treaty?
a) Reasons for the thaw
The death of Stalin
· Starting point of the thaw. New leaders such as Khrushchev wanted to improve relations with USA. By 53’ both USA and USSR had developed a hydrogen bomb, the two sides were so balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear war was to be avoided.
Khrushchev said in a famous speech in February 56’: There are only two ways, friends or enemies.
He even said that USSR had not given up the idea of communist dominated world; this would be achieved when the Western powers recognized the superiority of the Soviet economic system, not when they were defeated in war.
McCarthy discredited
It became clear that McCarthy was something of a fanatical, and when he began to accuse leading generals of having communist sympathies, he had gone too far. The Senate condemned him, and then Eisenhower announced that the American people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet people.
b) How did the thaw show itself?
The first signs:
The signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjon ended the Korean War (53’)
The end of the Indo-China War (54)
The Russian made important concessions in 55’
· Agreed to give up military bases in Finland.
· They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN
· The quarrel with Yugoslavia was healed by Khrushchev’s visit in Belgrade.
· The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states.
The signing of the Austrian Treaty (May 55’)
· Since 45’ the country was divided into four, with own government (because they were not treated as a defeated enemy)
· The Austrian power was limited and the situation was like the one in Germany.
· In 55’ the Austrians persuaded the USSR to be more cooperative. The USSR was also afraid of a merger between West Germany and West Austria.
· As a result, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent with her 1937 frontiers.
· Austria was: not to unite with Germany, had limited armed forces, had to remain neutral. This means that they could not join NATO or ECC.
· Austrian were unhappy because of the loss of the German speaking area of the South of Tyrol, which Italy was allowed to keep.
b) The thaw was only partial
· Khrushchev’s policy was a curious mixture that west had difficult to understand.
· He had no intention of relaxing its grip on the satellites states; a good example was Hungary (56).
· When the rising against communism occurred, it was crushed by Russian tanks. Sometimes it seemed that he wanted to see how far he could go before the stood him up:
The Warsaw Pact (55’) was signed between Russia. It was signed by USSR and her satellite states, shortly after West Germany was admitted in NATO. This pact was a mutual defense agreement which the west took as a gesture against West Germany’s membership of NATO.
The Russians continued to build up their nuclear armaments.
The situation in Berlin caused more tension
Most provocative of all was when Khrushchev installed Soviet missiles in Cuba, less the a hundred miles from American coast (62’)
The situation in Berlin
· In 58’ , perhaps of the USSR’s apparent lead in some areas of the nuclear arms race, Khrushchev announced that his country no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in West Berlin, but when the USA made it clear that they would do anything to withstand a possible attack, the USSR did not press the point.
· In 60’ USSR became angry when an American U2 spy plane was shot down in Russia. (The U2 incident). Eisenhower refused to apologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance flights.
· In 61’ USSR suggested to Kennedy, the withdrawal from Berlin. The USSR was embarrassed by the contrasts and by the large number of refugees escaping from East Germany (over 200 000/year, 3 million since 45’).
When Kennedy refused, the Berlin Wall was built in order to block the escape route.
What stances did not change during the thaw?
LISTEN IB STUDENTS, I LOVE BOB MARLEY
The spread of communism outside Europe and international relations
Why did North Korea invade S. Korea and what did the USA do about it?
There are several factors that affected the North Korean invasion. I can start with the end of WW2, when the country became in North a Russian government and in the south an American government. Korea was a part of worries of the superpowers, exactly like Germany, Austria and later on Vietnam. Since no agreement has been done, the country remained divided in to parts along the 38th parallel and in 1949 the Russian and American troops withdrew, leaving the country in a desperate situation. One year later N. Korea invaded south.
The communist leader of north, called Kim 2 Sung may have been affected by a speech made by the American Secretary of State, Dean Acheson. The speech was about areas around the Pacific that USA intended to defend, but nothing was mentioned about S. Korea. Kim felt free to invade the southern part of the country. His decision was encouraged by the USSR, which provided N. Korea with military equipment. It is possible that the Russians supported the N. Koreans to test the willpower of the new president Truman and to strengthen their position in the Pacific. Not only the Russian aid helped a lot, but also the similar situation that was going on in China, which was facing Taiwan, determined Kim Sung to invade S. Korea.
USA considered this attack as a part of the communist expansion, so Truman was sure that American resistance would the greatest thing to do. He moved his troops from Japan, to S.Korea in order to support the southern part, not only economically as before but also with troops. This move happened before UN’s decision, but when North Korean refused to withdraw their troops from south, like UN ordered, the United Nations asked member states to support south. USSR, that was boycotting meetings in protest against UN refusal to allow Mao’s regime to be represented, was not present otherwise they would vetoed.
Anyhow, USA and fourteen other countries, under the command of MacArthur, were present in South in order to maintain peace and to resist communism.
What were the results of the war?
The war in Korea was the first direct conflict of the Cold War. The results in Korea itself were a disaster, a huge amount of people were killed and left homeless.
Both superpowers considered the results of the war on their own side. Truman thought that the world understood the American force and how they could contain communism. The United Nations was sure of the fact that the world had understood their authority and power, while USSR considered the UN as a tool of the capitalists.
A new American problem arose after the war, the problem was communist China, which had shown its performance and which was now considered as a superpower as well. The American fear was visible, their relations with China were now strained and the most obvious signs were the defensive agreements with Australia, New Zeeland, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines, which later joined in an organization called SEATO. It was quite obvious that USA wanted to encircle China with bases.
As a result of this war, both USA and USSR wanted to build up alliances in Asia and in Europe.
Why did Castro come to power and how were Cuba’s foreign relations affected?
To start with, the American influence in the country, which started back in 1898 when USA got rid of the Spanish control in Cuba. This influence became bigger and bigger throughout the years, American troops remained in the country to maintain stability and the American aid became so big that it was said that the US controlled the Cuban economy. Cuba reached a point when it was too dependent of the sugar export and when only a few countries bought their sugar.
Another factor that provoked the Cuban anger was the unemployment and the lack of a real political system. In 1952 Batista seized power illegally and his system was corrupt and brutal and there were no signs of a peaceful revolution. The people wanted a new system that everybody could take part of.
Castro wanted to evacuate the corruption and Batista and had plans that included social reforms.
At his first attempt to take over the control in Cuba, Castro failed and was imprisoned for two years. The second time he began a campaign of guerilla warfare and sabotage in the cities and 1959 Castro became leader. The relations between USA and Cuba worsened before Castro pronounced himself a communist but after Castro nationalized American owned estates and factories in Cuba. As Eisenhower threatened the import of sugar, USSR and Cuba signed a trade agreement, doing so the relations between USSR and Cuba improved. In 1961 USA broke all relations with Cuba, while USSR started to give the economical aid.
Because of the communism in Cuba, the country was expelled fro OAS, because they were suspicious towards the Cuban government, but simultaneously after the Cuban crises, the relation between USA and Cuba remained cool.
What caused the civil war in S. Vietnam and why did the USA get involved?
Firstly, one of the most important factors was the president of S. Vietnam itself. He lost popularity among the people because he was Catholic (and most of the people were Buddhists), something that gave the Buddhists a feeling of discrimination. According to the people, he was corrupt, under too much American influence and did not start any land reform, as the people, which were inspired by China and N. Korea, wished.
Another thing card in the game was the NLF (Vietminh was only a part of it). The NLF wanted to introduce reforms and to negotiate for a united Vietnam. Seeing that Diem, the leader of S. Vietnam could not cope with the situation, the Americans decided to increase it military presence in S. Vietnam. After failing in Cuba and N. Korea, they felt it necessary to increase their aid in Vietnam. In public USA said that the reason helping Vietnam is to protect the independence there, but in reality they considered Vietnam a part of the domino territory.
How did the Vietnam War develop and why did the Americans fail?
Because the Vietnam War was so long, many presidents ruled USA during the period of war, each with new and own policies.
Kennedy (61-63) wanted to withstand only the guerillas. 16000, equipment and choppers were sent as aid. He isolated the peasant population, in a campaign called Safe Village, and thought that through this method the guerillas would be left outside. This failed because the guerillas were peasants as well; they continued their fight inside the villages.
Johnson (63-69) thought that Vietcong were controlled by Minh, so he started to bomb N. Vietnam. More than 500 000 troops arrived in South.
At home, he had a lot of pressure, and when with an offensive the Vietcong succeeded to capture 80% of the towns and villages in the country, the situation seemed tough. He had no intention of withdrawing, but he did stop his bombing in North (68).
Nixon (69-74) knew that US population would not allow more troops in S. Vietnam. He came with a policy called Vietnamization, which would support S. Vietnam with arms and training for defense.
71’ half of the American troops withdrew and Nixon began to bomb N. Vietnam again, and Indochina as well.
He was under pressure of the world and under the own population. No one liked his chemical weapons, his heavy bombing etc.
In 73’ the Americans withdrew, it was impossible to defeat the Vietcong, also because they were fighting on own territory and because they had no uniforms, so the American soldiers could not see the difference. The aid of weapons from China, Russia, and N. Korea, combined with the Vietnamese nationalism made Vietcong undefeatable. As example, instead of taking care of the casualties caused during the US bombing, they replied with evacuations of cities and rebuilding factories outside the towns.
Who was Salvador Allente, how did he come to power and why was he overthrown?’
In 70, a Marxist doctor of medicine from a middle class background won the presidential election as a leader of the UP (Unidad Popular). He was the world’s first Marxist leader that was voted through democratic election.
He became elected also because of the failure of the leader before him, whose name was Frei. The election of Frei (64) brought luck in the beginning, he made several successes, he:
Decreased the inflation with 12%
The rich had to pay their taxes instead of evading them
360 000 new houses were built
The numbers of schools were doubled
Some limited land reforms were introduced
1200 private holdings which were run inefficiently were confiscated and given to landless peasants
The US admired him so much that, they gave him economic aid. 67’ his luck started to turn against him: (STILL TALKING ABOUT FREI)
The left thought his land reforms too cautious and wanted full nationalization of the copper industry (Chile’s most important export), whereas the right thought he had gone too far.
In 69’ there was a serious drought (torka), in which 30% of the harvest was lost, large quantities had to be imported, something that gave birth to inflation. He and the government shot down the mine strikes.
Allente inspired confidence (elegant and cultured) and thought that communism can be succeeded without a violent revolution.
Though when Allente came to power did many improvements for the Chilean economical, labor, medical and educational system, he started to face major problems. Some of them were:
Land distribution caused a fall in the agricultural production
Mainly because farmers whose land was due to be taken stopped sowing and often slaughtered their cattle, this caused food shortages and inflation.
Private investors were frightened off and the government became short of funds to carry out social reforms as fast as they planned.
Copper nationalization was disappointing:
Long strikes for higher wages took place, affecting the production a lot + world price of copper decreased suddenly with 30%
The US disapproved strongly of Allende’s policies and other S. American governments were nervous in case the Chileans tried to export their revolution
Next elections were due in September 76’. He did not seem to be able to stand, but no Marxist regime hade ever let itself be voted out of power.
The opposition feared that Allende was planning to change constitution, so the opposition groups drew together to take action before Allende did.
The right organized a massive strike and won support of the army + staged a military cup. This was organized by leading generals, with Pinochet as the head.
Left wing leaders were imprisoned and killed, Allente as well.
CIA, helped by the Brazilian government played a vital role in the preparations of the cup, since the both feared the spread of communism in Latin America.
The new Chilean government was soon provoked criticism from outside world for brutal treatment of political convicts.
The USA stopped their aid.
Pinochet regime had some economic successes by bringing down the inflation.
In 89’ he allowed presidential elections and in 90’ Aylwin was allowed to become president
Why did détente come about from the early 70’s?
How did arms race play a part of détente?
The both super powers became fearful of the results of a possible nuclear war, where in reality the actual winner could not be decided. The both sides were stimulated by the effects of the Vietnam War, but of course had their own reasons as well:
The USSR understood the expense of the nuclear catch up.
They needed to devote more attention and resources to the satellite states, which all were suffering economical problems.
Simultaneously, the relations between them and China were not of the best nature, they did not want to be left behind while the relations between USA and China improved.
The Americans understood that there must be a better way of coping with the communism. Some Congressmen talked about returning to the isolation again.
The Chinese were anxious about their isolation, American intensions in Vietnam and about the bad relations with USSR.
The nations of Western Europe were worried because they would be in the front line if nuclear war would broke out.
Brandt, chancellor of West Germany (69’) tried to improve relations with Eastern Europe through Ostpolitik.
How have relations between the USA and China been during the period of détente?
Since the Korean War, the relations between those two were negative. In 71’ the Chinese unexpectedly invited an American table tennis team to visit China, USA responded by calling off their veto of Chinese entry in the UN. (71’)
Still a problem in Taiwan
How have relations between the USSR and China been during the period of détente?
The relations were bead because the Chinese did not approve Khrushchev’s policies, particularly his belief in peaceful co existence and that it was possible to achieve communism by methods other than violent.
They accused USSR for braking Lenin’s rules in order to suit their own needs, in reward Russia decreased economic aid to China.
At the end of the 70’s, when the relations between USA and China improved, it seemed that both Russia and China were vying for American support against each other, for the leadership of world communism. The Chinese now demanded their territories back, with Russia took.
There were also disputes about backing Vietnam who attacked Manchuria.
In 84’ the Chinese set their grievances against USSR:
The presence of Russian troops in Afghanistan
Soviet backing off Vietnamese troops in Cambodia
The soviet troops build along the Chinese frontiers of Mongolia and Manchuria.
Gorbachev decided to improve these relations. He:
Five year agreement on trade and cooperation was signed (July 85’)
Regular contact took place between the governments
Formal reconciliation took place in May 89’, when Gorbatchev visited Beijing
89’ Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia
How did international relations changed since the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe?
The cold war was over
In 90’ the Warsaw Pact and the NATO countries signed a treaty of no longer enemies and weapons would only be used al self defense.
New conflicts soon arose
Nationalism started to grow as a sign of communist grip under a long time. Czechoslovakia divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia
Conflicts between Azerbaijan and Armenia arose, because of territory
Yugoslavia divided into 5 separate states
As the states of Western Europe were moving closer to the European Community, those of Eastern Europe were breaking up into even smaller units.
Nuclear Weapon supervision
Countries considered as unstable or irresponsible governments might use the nuclear weapons. This is why supervision was needed over nuclear, biological and chemical weapons
Economical problems
E. Europe had now to learn hot to deal with the economy, from a command economy to a free market economy. They needed to plan their economy carefully with the help of Western Europe; otherwise stability would be hard to be created.
Nationalism and economic unrest could cause a write wing backlash, which could have been dangerous.
They were concerned about a possible income for Russia would have been the commerce with nuclear weapons with smaller countries.
The unification of Germany created some problems
The poles were afraid that the Germans would take back the area east of the river of Odder and Neisse.
Polish immigrants were seen as a problem.
Relations between the western allies.
Relations between Japan, USA, and Western Europe were good before they were united. They had the same aim: to withstand communism
USA, for example refused to provide troops for the UN peacekeeping forces, leaving Bosnia the burden to the other member states.
Post War Europe and Cold War
What happened at the Potsdam Conference and Yalta Conference? When did they take place and why where they important in a “cold war” context?
a)The Yalta Conference (Feb 45)
Was held in Russia, Crimea, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill were there. They should plan the post war time:
A new organization: to be called UN, should replace the failures of the League of Nations.
Germany was to be divided into zones. Russian, American and British (later French), while Berlin would be divided in the same way.
Austria was to be divided in the same way.
Free elections would be allowed in Eastern Europe
Stalin promised to join the war against Japan, if he received some territory of Manchuria and some land of Sakhalin Island
Their biggest problem was Poland:
When the Russians drove the Germans out of Poland, they set up a communist government in Lublin (even though the real Polish government was exiled in London).
At Yalta, they agreed that some of the London based government should be allowed to join the Lublin government, if the Russian in return would allowed to keep a strip of eastern Poland, which she annexed since 39’. Stalin demanded the whole German territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. The west was not happy about this.
b) The Potsdam (July 45)
It revealed a distinct cooling off in relations. Stalin, Truman and Churchill were present. But Churchill was replaced by Clement Atlee (the new British Labor Prime Minister, after election victory)
The war was over, but no agreement was reached about the long term of Germany.
Truman and Churchill were angry because the Russians occupied the area east of Odder and Neisse. The area was now ruled by pro communist Polish government. 5 millions Germans were expelled. This was not agreed at Yalta
Truman did not inform Stalin about the A bomb. 2 days after Potsdam, USA bombed Japan, the war ended quickly (10 August) without Russian aid, though the Russian declared war to Japan (8 August) and invaded Manchuria. They annexed southern part of Sakhalin, but they were not allowed in the occupation of Japan.
Why did a rift grow between East and West / Communist and Capitalist block?
The very first early rift came about when USSR created an A bomb for their own. This created a process which involved the following:
Whatever one side did was viewed by the other side as aggressive. For example Poland and Germany, which the superpowers argued about, and no permanent agreement could be reached.
Account for the main post war settlements
What various reasons may account for Europe becoming ideologically vulnerable at extremist at the end of WW2?
Explain the ideas of expansionism and containment in a clod war context.
The cold war was: instead of open fighting, the rival powers attacked each other with propaganda, economic measures and with a general policy of non- co-operation. The last mentioned meant that both superpowers gathered allies around them:
USSR: Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Albania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (49). N. Korea became a communist government in 48, and in 49 Mao became a dictator in China.
USA: fostered Japan as an ally. Britain and 14 other European countries worked with USA as well. Also Turkey was given economic aid to build an anti communist protection.
What methods did the USSR and USA revert to in their expansionism and containment?
The USA’s actual policy was to withstand, in any situation and any time, the communism expansion. But sometimes, the USA called this in public as an independence protection.
Russia on the other hand, claimed that it suffered losses during the war, it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states and that these relations were important as self defense for the state. A good example is the polish territory during the Yalta and Potsdam conference. He claimed the soviet rule of the German area east of the rivers Odder and Neisse, only because this has always been a corridor for German attack against Russia.
The both powers, as I mentioned above, gathered allies, democratically or not. To attract countries on their side, the powers used the economy as key. They offered doctrines and help, that would firstly help those countries economically and in the same time gather the as allies. The Marshall Plane, the Truman Doctrine and the Cominform are good examples.
What was the Berlin Airlift and why did it come about?
It brought the Cold War to its first climax, this because of the disagreement over the treatment of Germany.
As agreed at Yalta and Potsdam, Germany and Berlin were each divided into four zones. While the west tried to do their best to organize economic and political recovery in their parts, Stalin determined to make Germany pay for everything they destroyed. He treated his zone as a satellite, draining its resources away to Russia.
Early in 48, because of the Marshall aid, they merged to form a single economic unit, something that was the opposite of the Russian situation in East Germany.
The west wanted to unite the whole country, but Stalin saw this as dangerous. He felt scared of the now merged German zone.
In 48 the west ended price controls in Berlin. USSR though that this was an impossible situation because they felt it impossible to have 2 different currencies in the same city + that the USSR was embarrassed of the big contrast between West and East Berlin.
The Russians closed all the road, rail and canal links between West Berlin and West Germany. The West was sure that if they would withdraw, the situation would end with a Russian attack in the West Berlin.
The west decided to fly the supplies in the area, and over the next 2 months 2 million tons supplies were given to the West Berliners to cope with the winter.
The Russians admitted failure by lifting the blockade (May 49)
The results of the affair:
It gave a psychological increase to the western powers, but it did worsen the relations with USSR a lot.
It caused the western powers to coordinate their defense by the formation of NATO
Since no compromises were made, Germany would remain divided for the foreseeable future.
How do the Korean War and the German question fit into the development of the Cold War?
In the both cases (and even several examples as Austria and Vietnam), the both superpowers came near each other to withstand the opposite power. In the case of Korea, the intervention was brutal and direct, but in the case of Germany the conflict was not directly.
The both powers wanted, trough the both examples, to tighten their grip in certain areas, attack each other with propaganda, economic measures and general policy of non co-operation.
What regional defense organizations came about to protect Western Europe?
NATO
(Militarily) was formed in April 49’. Its members would treat any attack of all the members as an own. This was a highly significant development: the Americans abandoned their policy of no entangling alliances and for the first time had pledged themselves in advance military action
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plane ( mainly financial)
These can be counted as organizations that would defense Western Europe.
Problems with relations after WW2
What caused the Cold War? Which side is to blame?
a) Differences of principle.
The communists system: their ideas came from Marx.
The wealth of a country should be collectively owned and shared by everybody.
The economy should be central planned and the interests and well-being of the working classes safeguarded by state social policies.
The capitalist system:
They wanted to operate on the basis of private ownership of a country’s wealth. The driving forces should be private enterprise in the pursuit of making profits and the preservation of the power of private wealth.
Ever since 1917, the capitalists were afraid of communism spread, which would end the private ownership, political power by the wealthy classes. An example of the capitalist fear was the Russian revolution. USA, Britain, France and Japan sent troops in order to protect the anti communists.
b) Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions
His aim was to take profit of the military situation, to strengthen Russian influence in Europe.
As the Nazis collapsed they occupied territories of Romania, Poland and Finland. The west was alerted; they thought that this was intent of spreading communism over as much of the globe as possible.
d) US and British politicians were hostile to the Soviet government
· During the war, Lend Lease took place. This was American aid to Russia during the war. This meant that Roosevelt trusted Stalin.
· After Roosevelt’s death (April 45), Truman that was suspicious toughened his attitude towards communism.
· A theory shows that Truman dropped the bomb over Japan, to show Russia what might have happened if they would go too far.
· Stalin suspected Truman for destroying communism.
· Stalin did not know about the existence of the A bomb, just shortly before its use in Japan.
· The west had the bomb and USSR did not.
Which side was to blame?
Orthodox view:
During the 50’s, mostly American historians blamed Stalin for the Cold War. The formation of NATO and the American entry in the Korean War were the west’s self-defense against communism aggression.
The revisionist view:
During the 70’s and 80’s some Americans historians argued that Stalin was not to be blamed. USSR suffered losses during the war and it was obvious that Russia wanted to have good friendship relations with the neighboring states. They even claimed that USA had to give more understanding to the USSR.
This view was affected by the Vietnam War, which made the people to reconsider the American attitude and to notice the hostility towards communism.
The post revisionist view
During the 80’s this view was put forward by some American historians. This is because they had accesses to new sources and archives that were not able before. They argued that the both sides have to be blamed for the Cold War.
They believed that:
USA: and its economic policies (Marshall Aid) were due to increase American influence in Europe.
USSR: Stalin had no long term plans of spreading communism but he was opportunist, who would take profit of every situation as possible.
Both powers created an atmosphere that was interpreted in two ways. What was claimed as necessary for self defense by one side was considered by the other side as evidence of aggressive intent.
War was avoided because the Americans were reluctant to use their bomb
What were the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan?
The Truman Doctrine
· The idea came from Greece, where communists wanted to overthrow the monarchy.
· British troops helped the Greeks (44’), and the west felt now the same about Eastern Europe.
· Ernest Bevin (British foreign minister announced march 47): the USA would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities and by outside pressures.
As a result: Greece and Turkey were helped. Turkey, which also seemed under threat, gained an aid of 60 million dollars.
· Truman Doctrine showed that USA had no intention of returning to their isolation, as after WW1. They would withstand communism all around the globe.
The Marshall Plane
· Announced in June 47’, was an economic extension of Truman Doctrine.
· American secretary of state, Marshall, produced his European Recovery Programme (ECR). He declared:
Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty and desperation throughout the world.
· One of his aims was to promote the economic recovery of Europe, to ensure American exports. But his main aim was political: if Western Europe had economic problems, it was more likely for the communists to gain control in those areas.
· By September 16 countries joined this.
· USSR considered the Marshal Plane as dollar imperialism, as a device for gaining control of Western Europe and also as for interfering in Eastern Europe. Even though the aid could have been given to the countries of Eastern Europe as well, USSR rejected the offer for Russia and its Satellite states + Czechoslovakia.
· The iron curtain seemed a reality.
What was the Cominform?
The Cominform
· Was the communist response ( September 47)
· Was done to draw together the European communist parties.
· All the satellites states were members+ Italian and French communist parties were represented.
· The aim of this was to tighten the Russian grip on the satellites.
· It was demanded to be Russian style communism. Eastern Europe was to be industrialized, collectivized and centralized.
· It was expected trade routs between the satellites states and all contacts with non-communist countries were discouraged. Yugoslavia objected and was expelled (48’), though it remained communist.
· Molotov Plan was introduced (49’) to offer Russian aid to the satellites
· Comecon was also set up in order to coordinate Russian economic policies.
Why could it be said that there was a thaw after 1953 in the Cold War and to what extent was there actually a thaw?
a) What were the first sign?
b) What concessions were made by Russians?
c) What was the signing of the Austrian State Treaty?
a) Reasons for the thaw
The death of Stalin
· Starting point of the thaw. New leaders such as Khrushchev wanted to improve relations with USA. By 53’ both USA and USSR had developed a hydrogen bomb, the two sides were so balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear war was to be avoided.
Khrushchev said in a famous speech in February 56’: There are only two ways, friends or enemies.
He even said that USSR had not given up the idea of communist dominated world; this would be achieved when the Western powers recognized the superiority of the Soviet economic system, not when they were defeated in war.
McCarthy discredited
It became clear that McCarthy was something of a fanatical, and when he began to accuse leading generals of having communist sympathies, he had gone too far. The Senate condemned him, and then Eisenhower announced that the American people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet people.
b) How did the thaw show itself?
The first signs:
The signing of the peace agreement at Panmunjon ended the Korean War (53’)
The end of the Indo-China War (54)
The Russian made important concessions in 55’
· Agreed to give up military bases in Finland.
· They lifted their veto on the admission of 16 new member states to the UN
· The quarrel with Yugoslavia was healed by Khrushchev’s visit in Belgrade.
· The Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states.
The signing of the Austrian Treaty (May 55’)
· Since 45’ the country was divided into four, with own government (because they were not treated as a defeated enemy)
· The Austrian power was limited and the situation was like the one in Germany.
· In 55’ the Austrians persuaded the USSR to be more cooperative. The USSR was also afraid of a merger between West Germany and West Austria.
· As a result, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent with her 1937 frontiers.
· Austria was: not to unite with Germany, had limited armed forces, had to remain neutral. This means that they could not join NATO or ECC.
· Austrian were unhappy because of the loss of the German speaking area of the South of Tyrol, which Italy was allowed to keep.
b) The thaw was only partial
· Khrushchev’s policy was a curious mixture that west had difficult to understand.
· He had no intention of relaxing its grip on the satellites states; a good example was Hungary (56).
· When the rising against communism occurred, it was crushed by Russian tanks. Sometimes it seemed that he wanted to see how far he could go before the stood him up:
The Warsaw Pact (55’) was signed between Russia. It was signed by USSR and her satellite states, shortly after West Germany was admitted in NATO. This pact was a mutual defense agreement which the west took as a gesture against West Germany’s membership of NATO.
The Russians continued to build up their nuclear armaments.
The situation in Berlin caused more tension
Most provocative of all was when Khrushchev installed Soviet missiles in Cuba, less the a hundred miles from American coast (62’)
The situation in Berlin
· In 58’ , perhaps of the USSR’s apparent lead in some areas of the nuclear arms race, Khrushchev announced that his country no longer recognized the rights of the western powers in West Berlin, but when the USA made it clear that they would do anything to withstand a possible attack, the USSR did not press the point.
· In 60’ USSR became angry when an American U2 spy plane was shot down in Russia. (The U2 incident). Eisenhower refused to apologize, defending America’s right to make reconnaissance flights.
· In 61’ USSR suggested to Kennedy, the withdrawal from Berlin. The USSR was embarrassed by the contrasts and by the large number of refugees escaping from East Germany (over 200 000/year, 3 million since 45’).
When Kennedy refused, the Berlin Wall was built in order to block the escape route.
What stances did not change during the thaw?
LISTEN IB STUDENTS, I LOVE BOB MARLEY
China since 1949: the communists in control
China since 1949: the communists in control
Summary of events
After the communist victory Mao set about rebuilding
At the first there was Russian advice and aid, in the late 1950’s relations cooled and Russian economic aid was reduced
In 58 Mao introduced the Great Leap Forward, in which communism was introduced. The emphasis was put on decentralization, agriculture, communes and contact with the masses.
Mao became critical to Russia because, in his view, the Russians went away from the Marxist Principles and he blamed them that they followed the capitalist road
During the 60’s these disagreements caused a serious drift in world communism , which were only healed after Gorbachev became a Russian leader
The cultural revolution (66-69), meant that Mao succeeded to crush all the opposition and to keep the party’s development along Marxist Leninist lines
After Mao’s death (76) there was a power of struggle from which Deng emerged as undisputed leader (81).
Dang’s policies were moderating Mao’s ideas, were less conservative and Deng looked towards Japan and the West for ideas and support.hjijk
In 87 Deng wad forced to slow down his reforms because of the big opposition of Mao’s supporters, which accused Deng of following the capitalist road.
In April 89, the Chinese were encouraged by Gorbachev’s policies, e.g. glasnost and the revolutions that took place in Eastern Europe. The Chinese started a revolution in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They demanded democracy and end of corruption and CCP.
The Armies moved in, crushing the opposition and restored order. The communism and the economic reforms continued with some successes, but there was no political reform. Deng continued as a supreme leader until his death in 97 (age of 92)
18.1 How successful was Mao in dealing with China’s problem?
a) What were the problems facing Mao?
· The problems facing China were complex
· The country was devastated after the civil war with Japan: railways, roads, canals, and dykes had been destroyed and there were chronic food shortages, industry was backward, agriculture was inefficient and incapable, inflation was huge
· To satisfy the supporter’s demands was crucial for Mao
· It was difficult for Mao to control and organize such a vast country
· Mao looked closely at Stalin’s methods and experimented to find out what would work in China and what would not.
b) The constitution of 1950 (officially adopted 54’)
· Every 4 years the people elected members of the National People’s Congress (the final authority of legislation)
· The State Council and the Chairman of the Republic were chosen by the Congress, whose function was to look after that the laws were carried out properly and that the countries policies went ahead
· The State Council elected the Politburo, which took all the main decisions.
· The whole system was dominated by the communist party and only party members could be elected.
· The system was important because if provided the country with a central government, the first in many years. The system is today almost unchanged.
c) Agricultural changes
· These transformed China from an inefficient country to one of large co operative like Russia.
· In the first stages land was taken from land owners and given to peasants, also sometimes with violence. It is important to know that some historians claim that the violence never occurred.
· The next step was achieved without violence. Peasants were persuaded to join collective farms (not like in Russia).
· By 1956 about 95% of all peasants were collectivized in order to increase food production
d) Industrial changes
· This begun with the government nationalizing most businesses.
· In 1953 a Five Year Plan of the heavy industry started, where the Russians helped with cash, equipment and advisers.
· Before it was complete Mao started to have doubts about the Five Year Plan, if this Plan was suited for China. Mao could claim that under his leadership China recovered from the ravages of the war, full communication has been restored, inflation was under control an the economy looked better.
e) The Hundred Flowers Campaign (57)
· This developed from the industrialization which produced a new class of technicians and engineers. These were called the party cadres.
· The cadres were groups that organized the masses politically and economically e.g. collectivization of farms.
· Mao decided first open discussion of the problems might improve relations between cadres, experts or intellectuals.
· These created only criticism and opposition
· Mao called off the campaign and clamped down on his critics
· The campaign showed that the actual opposition still existed.
· Mao was convinced that he had to consolidate the advance of socialism. He introduced the Great Leap Forward.
f) The Great Leap Forward
· This was a policy that would face the Chinese situation and was not based on Russian experience.
· You can say that The Great Leap Forward wad an extension of the Five Year Plan.
· It was mostly concentrated on agriculture that was ineffective. This would increase output
· Its most important features were:
The introduction of communes
Units larges than collective farms, containing up to 75 000 people, divided into brigades and teams with an elected council.
They ran their own collective farms and factories, carried out most of the functions of local government within the commune and undertook special projects.
A complete change of emphasis in industry
· Instead of aiming for large scale works of the type seen in Russian and the West, smaller factories were set up on the country side to provide machinery for agriculture
· Mao talked about 600 000 backyard steel furnaces organized and managed by the communes, which also undertook to build roads, canals, dams, reservoirs and irrigation channels.
· At first the Leap was a great failure, which was caused also because of the Russian aid withdrawal, lack of experience among the cadres. Mao’s prestige suffered because of the failure and he was forced to resign as Chairman
· In the long term the importance of the Great Leap forward became clear, both industrial and agricultural production increased substantially and China could manage to feed its massive population without famine
· The communes proved to be a successful innovation, even more affective then collective farms. This gave the government chance to keep in touch with the local opinion
· The crucial decision that had been taken by China is that they would remain an agricultural country with small scale industry spread around the country side
· The economy would be labor intensive, which means that it relied on massive numbers of workers instead of laborsaving machines. This give also anyone a job, it enabled China to avoid the growing unemployment problems, as I happened in the West.
· Other benefits were the spread of education and welfare services and of the women’s role in the society.
g) The Cultural Revolution (66-69)
· jkl
Summary of events
After the communist victory Mao set about rebuilding
At the first there was Russian advice and aid, in the late 1950’s relations cooled and Russian economic aid was reduced
In 58 Mao introduced the Great Leap Forward, in which communism was introduced. The emphasis was put on decentralization, agriculture, communes and contact with the masses.
Mao became critical to Russia because, in his view, the Russians went away from the Marxist Principles and he blamed them that they followed the capitalist road
During the 60’s these disagreements caused a serious drift in world communism , which were only healed after Gorbachev became a Russian leader
The cultural revolution (66-69), meant that Mao succeeded to crush all the opposition and to keep the party’s development along Marxist Leninist lines
After Mao’s death (76) there was a power of struggle from which Deng emerged as undisputed leader (81).
Dang’s policies were moderating Mao’s ideas, were less conservative and Deng looked towards Japan and the West for ideas and support.hjijk
In 87 Deng wad forced to slow down his reforms because of the big opposition of Mao’s supporters, which accused Deng of following the capitalist road.
In April 89, the Chinese were encouraged by Gorbachev’s policies, e.g. glasnost and the revolutions that took place in Eastern Europe. The Chinese started a revolution in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. They demanded democracy and end of corruption and CCP.
The Armies moved in, crushing the opposition and restored order. The communism and the economic reforms continued with some successes, but there was no political reform. Deng continued as a supreme leader until his death in 97 (age of 92)
18.1 How successful was Mao in dealing with China’s problem?
a) What were the problems facing Mao?
· The problems facing China were complex
· The country was devastated after the civil war with Japan: railways, roads, canals, and dykes had been destroyed and there were chronic food shortages, industry was backward, agriculture was inefficient and incapable, inflation was huge
· To satisfy the supporter’s demands was crucial for Mao
· It was difficult for Mao to control and organize such a vast country
· Mao looked closely at Stalin’s methods and experimented to find out what would work in China and what would not.
b) The constitution of 1950 (officially adopted 54’)
· Every 4 years the people elected members of the National People’s Congress (the final authority of legislation)
· The State Council and the Chairman of the Republic were chosen by the Congress, whose function was to look after that the laws were carried out properly and that the countries policies went ahead
· The State Council elected the Politburo, which took all the main decisions.
· The whole system was dominated by the communist party and only party members could be elected.
· The system was important because if provided the country with a central government, the first in many years. The system is today almost unchanged.
c) Agricultural changes
· These transformed China from an inefficient country to one of large co operative like Russia.
· In the first stages land was taken from land owners and given to peasants, also sometimes with violence. It is important to know that some historians claim that the violence never occurred.
· The next step was achieved without violence. Peasants were persuaded to join collective farms (not like in Russia).
· By 1956 about 95% of all peasants were collectivized in order to increase food production
d) Industrial changes
· This begun with the government nationalizing most businesses.
· In 1953 a Five Year Plan of the heavy industry started, where the Russians helped with cash, equipment and advisers.
· Before it was complete Mao started to have doubts about the Five Year Plan, if this Plan was suited for China. Mao could claim that under his leadership China recovered from the ravages of the war, full communication has been restored, inflation was under control an the economy looked better.
e) The Hundred Flowers Campaign (57)
· This developed from the industrialization which produced a new class of technicians and engineers. These were called the party cadres.
· The cadres were groups that organized the masses politically and economically e.g. collectivization of farms.
· Mao decided first open discussion of the problems might improve relations between cadres, experts or intellectuals.
· These created only criticism and opposition
· Mao called off the campaign and clamped down on his critics
· The campaign showed that the actual opposition still existed.
· Mao was convinced that he had to consolidate the advance of socialism. He introduced the Great Leap Forward.
f) The Great Leap Forward
· This was a policy that would face the Chinese situation and was not based on Russian experience.
· You can say that The Great Leap Forward wad an extension of the Five Year Plan.
· It was mostly concentrated on agriculture that was ineffective. This would increase output
· Its most important features were:
The introduction of communes
Units larges than collective farms, containing up to 75 000 people, divided into brigades and teams with an elected council.
They ran their own collective farms and factories, carried out most of the functions of local government within the commune and undertook special projects.
A complete change of emphasis in industry
· Instead of aiming for large scale works of the type seen in Russian and the West, smaller factories were set up on the country side to provide machinery for agriculture
· Mao talked about 600 000 backyard steel furnaces organized and managed by the communes, which also undertook to build roads, canals, dams, reservoirs and irrigation channels.
· At first the Leap was a great failure, which was caused also because of the Russian aid withdrawal, lack of experience among the cadres. Mao’s prestige suffered because of the failure and he was forced to resign as Chairman
· In the long term the importance of the Great Leap forward became clear, both industrial and agricultural production increased substantially and China could manage to feed its massive population without famine
· The communes proved to be a successful innovation, even more affective then collective farms. This gave the government chance to keep in touch with the local opinion
· The crucial decision that had been taken by China is that they would remain an agricultural country with small scale industry spread around the country side
· The economy would be labor intensive, which means that it relied on massive numbers of workers instead of laborsaving machines. This give also anyone a job, it enabled China to avoid the growing unemployment problems, as I happened in the West.
· Other benefits were the spread of education and welfare services and of the women’s role in the society.
g) The Cultural Revolution (66-69)
· jkl
chapter 16. Communist Rule in the USSR, lowe notes
16. Communist Rule in the USSR
1924-1991
Summary of events
This period in the history of the USSR falls into 4 phases
1924-53
· Stalin was the dominant figure (1924-1953, he was 73)
· When Lenin died 24’ it was expected that Trotskij would become leader, but Stalin won the “competition”.
· Back then tremendous problems faced young Russia:
Industry and agriculture were backward and inefficient
Constant food shortages that pressed social and political problems
Many Russians were afraid that some capitalist power would try to destroy the new communist state
· Stalin’s efforts to overcome these problems were:
Five Year Plans to revolutionize industry
Collectivization of agriculture
Introduction of totalitarian regime (more ruthless than Hitler’s system)
1953-1964
Nikita Khrushchev was leader under this period. He began a de- Stalinization policy and made some progress in improving living standards
1964- 1985
Was a period of stagnation and decline, the leader was Brezhnev
1985-1991
· Gorbachev tried to reform and modernize Russian communism and encouraged the same things in the satellite states
· He was unable to control the rising tide of criticism of communism, so 90-91 non communists governments were established in E. Europe
· When Gorbatchev failed the promises of economic reform and high living standards, people turned against him
· He lost power to Yeltsin, the communist party was declared illegal, USSR broke up in 15 different states and he resigned
16.1 How did Stalin manage to get supreme power?
· His real name is Joseph Djugashvilli (Stalin means man of steel), and he was born in 79 in Georgia
· He studied Theology 4 years but was expelled because his spreading of socialist ideas.
· He fixed his position under Lenin (17’) because his outstanding ability as an administrator
· After Lenin’s death (24’), most obvious successor was Trotskij but eventually Stalin succeeded to eliminate his rivals and became leader, Trotskij considered him as unable to cope with a leadership.
a) Trotsky’s brilliance worked against him
· Concurrency arose between the members of the Politburo. They were in the number of eight; some had a dislike to Stalin and thought that he was new and arrogant. Others wanted to lead Russian together.
· One thing was certain, everybody worked together to prevent Trotskij from becoming a leader
b) The other Politburo members underestimated Stalin
· Everybody ignored Lenin’s advice about removing him and they saw him as nothing more than a competent administrator
b) Stalin used his position
· He used his power of promotion and appointment to win supporters and remove the other’s supporters
c) Stalin used disagreements to his own benefit
· There were disagreements in the Politburo over policy because Marx had never described in detail exactly how the new communist society should be organized
· The politburo became divided unofficially in the left wing and the right wing, with Bukharin on the right and Trotskij, Kamenev and Zinoviev on the left
· The right wanted to continue NEP, even though it was causing an increase of the pulaks that were considered enemies of communism. Bukharin considered this important because it was important to merge soviet power in Russia, based on prosperous peasantry with a very gradual industrialization.
· The left, with Trotskij, was not agreed with the NEP and believed in revolution outside Russia and when this was achieved the rich West would help Russia with its industrialization
· Stalin supported right, simply to isolate Trotskij. Later when a split between Bukharin, Kamenev and Zinoviev occurred, Stalin supported Bukharin and the other two were outvoted.
Later Stalin that NEP must dissolve, when Bukharin protested he was expelled
· When he reached what he wished, he attacked the problems Russia faced, they were:
A) Economic
B) Political and Social
C) Foreign
16.2 How successful was Stalin in solving Russia’s economic problems?
a) What were Russia’s economic problems?
1.
· Russia was recovering from the effects of the WW1, but the production from industry was still very low (France, Germany, Britain, USA were in front of Russia)
· Stalin was sure that he needed a rapid expansion of heavy industry to cope with the West’s attack against USSR. He was sure that this attack would occur
· Industrialization would increase the communist support, because the industrial workers were the communists’ greatest allies. The more industrial workers there were in relation to peasants (Stalin’s enemies of socialism), the more secure the communist state would be.
· One big obstacle for Stalin was the lack of capital to finance expansion. Foreign countries were unwilling to invest in a communist state.
2.
· More food had to be produced, both to feed the growing industrial population and to provide a surplus of export.
· The surplus of export would bring in foreign capital and profits for investment of industry
· The primitive agricultural system which was allowed to continue under NEP was incapable of providing such resources.
b) The approach: the Five Year Plans and collectivization
Stalin had no economic experience but he did not hesitate to start some dramatic changes that would overcome the problems in the shortest possible time.
Both industry and agriculture was taken under government control and NEP was abandoned
Stalin said (31’): we are 50 or 100 years behind other countries, we must take this distance in the next 10 years
The Five Year Plan
· Industrial expansion was tackled by a series of Five Year Plans, the first two were said to have been completed a year before schedule (28-32 and 33-37), although they did not reach the target.
· The first plan was concentrated on heavy industry (coal, iron, steel, oil and machinery as tractors). These were scheduled to triple output
· The two later plans provided some increases in consumer goods and heavy industry
· The plans were remarkable. In 1940 USSR had overtaken Britain in iron and steel production (not yet in coal) and on her way to reach Germany
· Hundreds of factories were built, many of them in new towns east of Ural Mountains where they would be safer from invasion
How was this achieved?
The cash was provided almost entirely by the Russians themselves, with no foreign investment
The cash came from:
Grain exports
Charging peasants heavily for use of government equipment
Plowing back (återinvestera vinst) of all profits and surpluses
Hundreds of foreign technicians were brought in
Emphasis was placed on expanding education in colleges, factory schools and universities. This to provide skill workers
Differentials between skilled and unskilled workers, to encourage production
Life was very grim for most workers. There were severe punishments for bad workmanship. People were accused for being saboteurs when targets were not reached. This could send you in forced labor camps.
There were primitive housing conditions and food shortages as well. (because of the concentration on heavy industry)
By the mid 30s things were improving as benefits such as medical care, education and holidays with pay
Collectivization
This process dealt with problems of agriculture
The idea meant that small farms and holdings to the peasants should be merged to form large collective farms (kolkhoz) jointly owned by peasants. There were two main reasons for Stalin to do that:
The system of small farms was inefficient, whereas large farms, under state direction, and using tractors and combine harvesters, would vastly increase grain production.
He wanted to eliminate the prosperous peasants (kulaks) and NEP because they were considered enemies.
This policy was met with a lot of resistance in the countryside.
There was a problem. The landless laborers were no problem to collectivize. But all the peasants that owned any property at all (whether Kulaks or not) were hostile to the plan. To join, they had to be forced by armies of party members.
The armies urged poorer peasants to seize cattle and machinery from the kulaks to be handed over to the collectives.
When peasants refused to join they were shot or taken to labor camps.
When newly collectivized peasants tried to sabotage their system by producing only enough for their own needs, local officials insisted on seizing the required quotas.
Total grain production did not increase at all, sometimes even less. This led to famine in any areas during 32-33, especially in the Ukraine.
In one way Stalin could claim that collectivization was a success: it allowed greater mechanization that did achieve a substantial increase in production in 1937. On the other hand, so many animals were slaughtered that it was 1953 before livestock production recovered to the 1928 figure and the cost in human life and suffering was enormous.
16.3 Political and social problems and Stalin’s solutions
a) The problems
· Stalin felt that under his totalitarian regime, political and social activities must be controlled just as much as economic life.
· He wanted complete and unchallenged power and he became suspicious and intolerant of criticism
There was a growing opposition in the party; the Ryutin platform (32’) aimed to slow down industrialization, allow peasants to leave the collective farms and remove Stalin if necessary. Stalin wanted to eliminate criticism once for all.
A new constitution was needed to consolidate the hold of Stalin and the communist party over the whole country.
Social and cultural aspects of life need to be brought into line, so that he could harness them (utnyttja) to the service of the state
The non Russian parts of the country wanted to become independent but Stalin wanted to hold the Union together.
b) Stalin’s methods were typically dramatic
1. The Purges; There was a growing opposition in the party; the Ryutin platform (32’) aimed to slow down industrialization, allow peasants to leave the collective farms and remove Stalin if necessary. Stalin wanted to eliminate criticism once for all.
· The purges included that during the next four years hundreds of important officials were arrested, tortured, made to confess innocent crimes, (a good example is the plotting with the exiled Trotskij ) and forced to appear in series of “show trials”, in which people were found guilty and sentenced to death or sent to labor camps.
· Officials that were executed were: Ryutin (platform), Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin and Radek.
· Estimates argue that about 8 million innocent people ended up in labor camps.
· The purges were successful in eliminating possible leaders and in terrorizing the mass into obedience. The purges were bad because many of the best brains in the government, industry and army had now disappeared. This was extremely important because Russia had a low number of educated people, something that reduced progress.
A new constitution; a new constitution was needed to consolidate the hold of Stalin and the communist party over the whole country.
· In 36’ after much discussion, a new democratic constitution was introduced in which everyone was allowed to vote by secret ballot to choose members of national assembly known as Supreme Soviet.
The democracy was only an illusion: the constitution underlined the fact that Stalin and the party ran things, and though there was mention of freedom of speech, anybody who ventured to criticize Stalin was quickly purged.
3. Social and Cultural Policies; Social and cultural aspects of life need to be brought into line, so that he could harness them (utnyttja) to the service of the state
· Writers, artists and musicians were expected to produce works of realism glorifying soviet achievements. Anyone that did not conform or did not please Stalin was executed.
· Education was watched by secret police. It deteriorated into indoctrination. Something positive was that literacy increased, and was a great achievement
· Stalin tried to clamp down the Orthodox Church, but this was a failure because in the 40s more than the half of the population was till convinced believers.
4. Holding the Union together; the non Russian parts of the country wanted to become independent but Stalin wanted to hold the Union together.
· In 1914 the tsarist empire, contained many non Russian areas. Lenin was nice to most of them; he gave Finland independence for example. Other countries gained independence as well.
· Most countries that gained independence, after a while, turned out to be anti-Bolsheviks.
· Sine Lenin gained Stalin the Commissar of Nationalities post, Stalin decided that the new post tsarist states were too much of a threat, so he forced them to become part of Russia again.
· By 1925 there were 6 soviet republics: Russia itself, Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia and Azerbajdjan), the Ukraine, Belorussia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
· The Problem for Russia was that 48% of its population was non Russian and it would be difficult to hold them together under Moscow rule. Stalin adopted a two handed approach that worked successfully until Gorbachev.
a) National cultures and languages were encouraged and the republics had a certain amount of independence
b) It had to be clear that Moscow had the final word, and if necessary force would be used.
When the Ukraine communist party said that the collectivization was a failure, Moscow carried out a purge.
c) 1945-53
After the WW2 Stalin continued to rule the USSR for 8 years.
The western half of European Russia was totally devastated but Stalin did not let any relaxation of government controls.
The economy had to be reconstructed and the FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN was introduced (46’) and incredibly, in those circumstances, succeeded in restoring industrial production to its 1940’ levels.
Just before Stalin would start another set of purges, to the immense relief of his associates, he died (53’)
16.4 Was the Stalin approach necessary?
There are two major views about Stalin’s successes:
Stalin’s defenders, included many Russian historians, argued that the situation was so desperate that only the pressures of brute force could have produced such a rapid industrialization, together with the necessary food. For them the supreme justification is that thanks to Stalin the Russians could resist the Germans
The opposing view, claims that Stalin’s policies were superficially successful but in reality weakened Russia because:
a) High targets for industrial production placed unnecessary pressure on the workers and led to slipshod work and poor quality products
b) The brutal enforcement of collectivization vastly reduced the amount of meat available and made peasants so bitter that in the Ukraine the German invaders were welcomed
c) The purges slowed down economic progress by removing many of the most experienced men and almost caused military defeat during the first few month of the war by removing all the great generals
The final point is that many Marxists both inside and outside Russia claimed that Stalin betrayed the idealism of Marx and Lenin.
The Russian historian Roy Medvedev argues that Stalin should not get any credit at all because instead of a new classless society in which everybody was free and equal, ordinary workers and peasants were as exploited as they had been under the tsars. The party had taken the place of the capitalists and enjoyed all the privileges, best houses and cars.
Instead of Marxism, socialism and the dictatorship of the proletariat, there was merely Stalinism and the dictatorship of Stalin.
16.5 The Khrushchev era- 53à64
a) The rise of Khrushchev 53-57’
· After Stalin’s death the situation was similar to that after Lenin’s. there was no obvious leader
· The politburo was now called as the Praesidium decided to share power and rule as a group:
Malenkov became Chairman of the Council of Ministers;
Khrushchev became Party Secretary
Voroshilov became Chairman of the Praesidium
Beria became Chief of the Secret Police, Bulganin and Molotov
Khrushchev began to emerge as the dominant personality
Beria was executed because the others were afraid of him turning against them
Malenkov resigned after disagreeing with Khrushchev about industrial policies
Khrushchev’s position was strengthened even more when in an amazing speech (56’) he criticized Stalin’s policies, he criticized that:
a) condemned Stalin for encouraging the cult of his own personality instead of allowing the party rule
b) revealed details about Stalin’s purges of the 30’s and criticized his conduct of the war
c) claimed that socialism could be achieved in other ways that those Stalin used
d) suggested that peaceful co existence with the West was not possible but essential if nuclear war was to be avoided
· Molotov and Malenkov complained about this drastic speech that would encourage unrest. However as Party Secretary, as Stalin before, Khrushchev filled key positions with own supporters (e.g. the army) and then Molotov and Malenkov found themselves retired (June 57’)
· He did not have as much power as Stalin. He and the Central Committee of the party that ruled Russia and it was the Central Committee that voted Khrushchev out in 64’.
b) Khrushchev’s problems and policies
· In spite of the recovery under the last years, there were still a number of major problems:
The low standard of living among the industrial and agricultural workers
Inefficiency of agriculture, which did not provide Russia’s needs
· Khrushchev was aware of this fact, so he considered that a general de-Stalinization policy would solve some problems.
Industrial policy
· Industry continued to be organized under Five Year Plans, but firstly they were concentrated more on light industries, producing consumer goods (radios, TV sets, washing machines etc.), just to raise living standards
· To reduce over centralization and encourage efficiency, 100 Regional Economic Council were set up to make decisions about and organize their local industries. Managers were encouraged to make profits rather then meeting quotas and wages depended on output
· This led to an improvement of living standards in 58’. However, USSR, as Khrushchev confessed, was far behind USA in the production of housing production, but soon the difference would be covered.
· An important technological progress was the first manned orbit of the earth by Gagarin (61’)
2. Agriculture Policy
· In agriculture the increase of food production raised
· Khrushchev started for the first time the virgin land schemes (54’, this would cultivate huge areas in Siberia and Kazakhstan. These peasants would be allowed to keep or sell crops from private land. The government increased its payments for the crops from collectives, in order to provide incentives to produce more.
· After a period of increased grain production, in 63’ grain output was down to 10 million mainly because of the failure of the virgin land scheme.
· The trouble was that the biggest part of the land was of bad quality, not enough fertilizers were used. In general there was still too much interference in agriculture from party officials and it remained the least efficient sector of the economy.
· The Russians had to rely on grain imports, often from the USA.
3. Political changes
· The thaw included to return to party control instead of Stalin’s personality cult, a reduction in secret police activities, and more freedom for ordinary people, more tourism, and a slight relaxation of press controls.
4. Foreign affairs
· Khrushchev aimed for a peaceful co existence and seemed prepared to allow different roads to socialism among the satellites. The departure from strict Marxist ideas (including his encouragement of profit and wage incentives) laid him open to Chinese accusations of revisionism.
· He proved this when Poland and Hungary tried to beak down Russian control, and Khrushchev’s tolerance was shown.
c) Khrushchev’s fall
· In October 1964 the Central Committee of the party voted Khrushchev into retirement on the grounds of ill health, although his health was good.
· The real reasons were probably:
The failure of his agricultural policy (they have not been worse the others)
The loss of prestige over the Cuban missile crisis
The widening breach with China, which he made no attempt to heal
His colleges were tired of his extrovert personality
16.6 The USSR stagnates
a) The Brezhnev era
· After Khrushchev’s, three men Kosygin, Brezhnev and Podgorny seemed to be sharing power.
· First, Kosygin was the leading figure and the chief spokesman of foreign affairs, while Brezhnev and Podogorny looked after home affairs
· Kosygin pressed for more decentralization over economic policies, but this was very unpopular with other leaders that said that this would give too much independence of thought in the satellite states
· Brezhnev became leader (just he) in 77 until his death in 82. .
· Broadly speaking his policy was similar to Khrushchev’s.
1. Economic policies
· Economic policies maintained wage differentials and profit incentives (handlings stimulering) and some growth to take place but the rate was slow.
· The system remained strongly centralized and Brezhnev reluctant to change anything
· The production of harvest in 81 was a disaster. By this time much of Russian industry was old fashioned and in need of new production and processing technology. The building industry was also extremely low
· Because of this, USSR was depended on American wheat. In 1980 an American agricultural worker produced enough to feed 70 people, while in Russia only enough for ten people.
2. The Eastern Block
The Eastern Block was expected to obey Moscow’s rule
When liberal threads developed in Czechoslovakia, the Russian and the Warsaw Pact troops attacked the country and removed the Dubcek government with a pro-Moscow regime
The Brezhnev Doctrine was built. This would involve the intervention in internal affairs in any communist country that was under threat. The invasion in Afghanistan was the most blatant application of the doctrine
Romania refused to be part of the invasion of Czechoslovakia because they wanted to maintain good relations with China
3. Human rights
Brezhnev’s record on human right was not impressive, though he claimed to be in favor of the Helsinki agreement and he appeared to make improvements, but in fact little progress was made
Groups were set up to check if the terms of the agreement were kept, but they were met with exiles, imprisonments, arrests and deportations by the authorities. These groups were even dissolved (82’)
4. Foreign Policies
The Russians worked against détente, but after 79’ relations with the West deteriorated, this because of the invasion in Afghanistan
Short after that he increased the aid in Cuba, offered aid to Angola, Mozambique and Ethiopia and increased the armed forces, in particularly the navy and the new SS-20 missiles.
b) Andropov and Chernenko
After Brezhnev’s death Russia was ruled shortly by two elderly and ailing politicians (Andropov, Nov 82’-Feb 84’) and (Chernenko Feb 84- March 85’)
Andropov head of KGB until May 82, he:
He introduced a campaign of making Russia more efficient and to modernize it.
He began an anti corruption drive and introduced a program of economic reform, hoping to increase production by encouraging
He replaced old party officials with young men.
· Died because of illness
· Chernenko was 72 years old and has not succeeded with the human rights. He held Sakharov in exile.
· Members of an unofficial trade union, supporters of a group for the establishment of trust between the USA and the USSR, and members of an unofficial religious groups were all arrested
16.7 Gorbachev and the end of communist rule
· Came to power at the age of 54, was the most dynamic leader Russia had seen for many years.
· He was determined to transform and revitalize the country after all the policies.
· He intended to achieve this by modernizing and streamlining the communist party with the new policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring- economic and social reform) REFORM= FÖRBÄTTRING TILL DET BÄTTRE
This made an impact on foreign affairs on détente, relations with China, a withdrawal from Afghanistan and ultimately the ending of the Cold War.
· Gorbachev outlined what was wrong in a speech in 88’. The system was to centralized, leaving no room for local individual initiative. It was based on state ownership and control and weighted strongly towards defense and heavy industry, leaving consumer goods for ordinary people in short supply.
· He did not want to end communism, he wanted to replace the Stalinist system, with a socialist system that was humane and democratic. He had more success abroad the at home.
· His policies failed to provide results quickly enough, and led to the collapse of communism, the breakup of the USSR and the end of his own political career.
a) Gorbachev’s new policies
1. Glasnost
This was soon seen in areas such as human rights and cultural affairs. Several well known dissidents were released and the Shakarovs were allowed to return to Moscow from Gorky.
Leaders like Bukharin were declared innocent of against all the crimes. Pravda (in west known as the communist voice; it was the newspaper of the Central Committee of party) was allowed to publish criticisms against Brezhnev’s unfair attitude towards the dissidents.
Important political events were televised.
______________________
· In cultural matters, the film makers were allowed to make films against Stalin and all the earlier anti Stalin materiel was released
· There was a new freedom of news reporting, this because:
Use the media to publicize the inefficiency and corruption which the government was so anxious to stamp about
Educate public opinion
Mobilize support for the new policies
· Nobody was allowed to criticize the party itself
2. Economic affairs
· Gorbachev announced that 1987 would be the year for broad applications of the new methods of economic management
· Co Operatives to a maximum of 50 workers would be allowed (family restaurants, making clothes, TV or car repairs). This policy was created because:
1. To provide competition for the slow and inefficient services of the state, in the hope of stimulating a rapid economy
2. The need to provide alternative employment changed over the following decade: as more automation and computerization are introduced in factories and in offices, the need for manual work decreases.
3. The responsibility for quality control throughout industry as a whole was to be taken over by independent state bodies rather than factory management
The most important part of the reforms was the Law on Ste Enterprises (June 87) that removed the central planners’ total control over raw materials, production quotas and trade and made factories work to orders from customers.
3. Political changes
This began in January 87 when Gorbachev announced that he moves towards democracy within the party.
Instead of members of local soviets being appointed by the local communist party, they were to be elected by the people and there was to be a choice of candidates (not of parties) ; There were to be secret elections for top party positions and elections in factories to choose managers.
During 1988 dramatic changes in central government were achieved.
In May 89 the first Congress of People’s Deputies met. During the second session (December 89), it was decided that the reserved seats for the communist party should be abolished. Gorbachev was elected President of the Soviet Union (March 90), with 2 councils to advise him. 1 was his adviser, the other 1 contained representatives from the 15 satellite states
This system sidelined the old system, the communist party was on the verge to lose its privileged position
b) What went wrong with Gorbachev’s policies?
1. Opposition from radicals and conservatives
· As the reforms got underway, Gorbachev ran into problems
· Party leaders as Boris Yeltsin were more radical that Gorbachev and thought that the reforms were not drastic enough. They wanted to change to a western style market economy as soon as possible, though they knew that this would give short termed difficulties to the Russians
· The conservatives (the large majority), on the other hand, felt that the changes were too drastic
· Glasnost that encouraged the people to voice their criticism was now in full flow, and was beginning to turn against the communist party.
· This and other factors caused a dangerous split in the party and made it difficult for Gorbachev to satisfy either group.
2. The economic reforms did not produce results quickly enough
· In 90’ the national income actually fell and continued to fall, by about 15% by 91. Some economics think that USSR was going through an economic crisis as serious as the one in the US in the mid 30’s.
· The problem was that wages were now dependent on output, but since output was measured in roubles, factories were tempted not to increase overall output, but to concentrate on more expensive goods and reduce output of cheaper goods. This lead to higher wages, forcing the factories to produce more money causing inflation
· This led to major protests. The miners in USSR’s largest coalmining areas started a strike (1/2 million were on strike). They organized miners put forward 42 demands; better living and working conditions, better supplies for food, a share in the profits, more local control over the mines and later on, influenced by Poland, demanded own trade unions. The government granted many of the demands as full control over the mines. But still, by the end of 89, a quarter of the population leaved below the poverty line.
· Gorbachev was losing control and the miners encouraged even more radicals
3. Nationalist pressures
The nationalism, the glasnost and the perestroika encouraged the 14 satellite states to hope for more and more power from Moscow.
a) A fight occurred between Azerbajdjan and Armenia over an area called Nagorno, Gorbachev could do nothing about this since the conservative view. This created the loss of power of Moscow
b) The Baltic States, influenced by the rest of Eastern Europe, simply declared itself independent (Lithuania), and the other two soon followed. Moscow refused to recognize their independence
c) Yelstin that was excluded from the new supreme soviet by the conservatives, made a dramatic comeback and was elected president of the Russian republic in may 1990
4. Gorbachev and Yelstin were now bitter rivals and they disagreed on many fundamental issues
a) Yeltsin thought that the satellites should have the right to decide of they want to be part of the USSR or not and they would still have, if they are a part, some responsibilities to USSR. Gorbachev disagreed saying that this would cause disintegration
b) Yeltsin was disillusioned with the communist party and with the conservatives and how they treated him. He thought that the party no longer had the privilege to exist, while Gorbachev was still a convinced communist that thought that a humane democratic communism would be great.
c) Yeltsin thought also that the answer was a rapid changeover to market economy and he knew that this would be painful for the Russians. Gorbachev was still cautious, realizing that a possible market economy would cause a disaster in the country. He was aware of how unpopular he was.
c) The Coup of August 91
As the crisis began Yeltsin and Gorbatchev tried to work together, and Gorbatchev felt himself being pushed towards free multy party elections.
As several Eastern European states wanted independence, in a speech Gorbachev announced that the remained satellite states had the right to be independent of Moscow. This agreement would be signed the 20th August 91’. The conservatives now were angry and organized a coup; during his vacation Gorbachev was arrested and held under household. Meantime, Yeltsin reigned from the communist party and now the communists surrounded Moscow with tanks. Yelstin succeeded to announce the coup in public, and now as a hero, he was the leader of Federation of Russia. And the coup leaders got arrested (21 Aug).
This meant that:
The communist party was disgraced and discredited. The party was banned in the Russian Federation. Gorbachev resigned as party secretary.
Yeltsin was considered the hero, while Gorbachev was sidelined. Yeltsin ruled the Russian federation, introducing programs for free market economy. The Ukraine gained independence and the USSR was over.
Yelstin negotiated for a new union of republics. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was joined by Belorussia and the Russian Federation, the Ukraine + 8 other republics (8 Dec 81’). They were fully independent but they would work together on economic matters and defense.
These developments meant that Gorbachev’s role as president still existed, so on the Christmas Day 91, he resigned
d) Verdict on Gorbachev
· Despite his failures, he was one of the most outstanding leader
· His achievements in foreign affairs were enormous. His policies of glasnost and perestroika restored freedom to the people. His policies of reducing militarily expenditure, détente and withdrawal from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe
· People say that he is the real successor of Lenin
· The communism survived in China but not on the USSR because the Chinese introduced economic reforms first and leaving the power of the communist power unchanged. This meant that even if people suffered economic hardship, the government retained tight control over them, and in the last resort was prepared to use violence against them. In USSR Gorbachev believed that all the reforms could be obtained simultaneously (government and economic). He first tried to achieve political reform and then economic reform without any really economic fundamental innovations
· 1991 did not bring about the death of communism, but it killed the Stalinism. In several countries reformed communist parties re merged, sometimes under different names.
e) Russia after Gorbachev
· Yelstin was faced by the same problem as Gorbatchev, to transform Russia into a market economy by privatizing the inefficient, support financially state industries and agriculture.
· Yelstin was very popular but he had to keep his promises about the living standards. During 92 and 93 the economy was still in decline and the people lived worse than under glasnost and perestroika.
· Russia started a new conflict with the Chechens who wanted to regain independence.
· During the first half of 1996 the economy started to show signs of recover, inflation decreased and production increased
· Elections were due in June 96’. And the members of the Commonwealth were afraid, also because Yeltsin’s competition with Zyuganov, that a former communist leader would gain the power again. In the election they and the International Monetary Fund backed Yeltsin (a loan of 10 million dollars)
· He received even more support when he succeeded to negotiate cease fire with Chechenia and doing so won with 3% against Zyuganov. The people were afraid, because of Yeltsin’s health, that he would not complete his mandate.
1924-1991
Summary of events
This period in the history of the USSR falls into 4 phases
1924-53
· Stalin was the dominant figure (1924-1953, he was 73)
· When Lenin died 24’ it was expected that Trotskij would become leader, but Stalin won the “competition”.
· Back then tremendous problems faced young Russia:
Industry and agriculture were backward and inefficient
Constant food shortages that pressed social and political problems
Many Russians were afraid that some capitalist power would try to destroy the new communist state
· Stalin’s efforts to overcome these problems were:
Five Year Plans to revolutionize industry
Collectivization of agriculture
Introduction of totalitarian regime (more ruthless than Hitler’s system)
1953-1964
Nikita Khrushchev was leader under this period. He began a de- Stalinization policy and made some progress in improving living standards
1964- 1985
Was a period of stagnation and decline, the leader was Brezhnev
1985-1991
· Gorbachev tried to reform and modernize Russian communism and encouraged the same things in the satellite states
· He was unable to control the rising tide of criticism of communism, so 90-91 non communists governments were established in E. Europe
· When Gorbatchev failed the promises of economic reform and high living standards, people turned against him
· He lost power to Yeltsin, the communist party was declared illegal, USSR broke up in 15 different states and he resigned
16.1 How did Stalin manage to get supreme power?
· His real name is Joseph Djugashvilli (Stalin means man of steel), and he was born in 79 in Georgia
· He studied Theology 4 years but was expelled because his spreading of socialist ideas.
· He fixed his position under Lenin (17’) because his outstanding ability as an administrator
· After Lenin’s death (24’), most obvious successor was Trotskij but eventually Stalin succeeded to eliminate his rivals and became leader, Trotskij considered him as unable to cope with a leadership.
a) Trotsky’s brilliance worked against him
· Concurrency arose between the members of the Politburo. They were in the number of eight; some had a dislike to Stalin and thought that he was new and arrogant. Others wanted to lead Russian together.
· One thing was certain, everybody worked together to prevent Trotskij from becoming a leader
b) The other Politburo members underestimated Stalin
· Everybody ignored Lenin’s advice about removing him and they saw him as nothing more than a competent administrator
b) Stalin used his position
· He used his power of promotion and appointment to win supporters and remove the other’s supporters
c) Stalin used disagreements to his own benefit
· There were disagreements in the Politburo over policy because Marx had never described in detail exactly how the new communist society should be organized
· The politburo became divided unofficially in the left wing and the right wing, with Bukharin on the right and Trotskij, Kamenev and Zinoviev on the left
· The right wanted to continue NEP, even though it was causing an increase of the pulaks that were considered enemies of communism. Bukharin considered this important because it was important to merge soviet power in Russia, based on prosperous peasantry with a very gradual industrialization.
· The left, with Trotskij, was not agreed with the NEP and believed in revolution outside Russia and when this was achieved the rich West would help Russia with its industrialization
· Stalin supported right, simply to isolate Trotskij. Later when a split between Bukharin, Kamenev and Zinoviev occurred, Stalin supported Bukharin and the other two were outvoted.
Later Stalin that NEP must dissolve, when Bukharin protested he was expelled
· When he reached what he wished, he attacked the problems Russia faced, they were:
A) Economic
B) Political and Social
C) Foreign
16.2 How successful was Stalin in solving Russia’s economic problems?
a) What were Russia’s economic problems?
1.
· Russia was recovering from the effects of the WW1, but the production from industry was still very low (France, Germany, Britain, USA were in front of Russia)
· Stalin was sure that he needed a rapid expansion of heavy industry to cope with the West’s attack against USSR. He was sure that this attack would occur
· Industrialization would increase the communist support, because the industrial workers were the communists’ greatest allies. The more industrial workers there were in relation to peasants (Stalin’s enemies of socialism), the more secure the communist state would be.
· One big obstacle for Stalin was the lack of capital to finance expansion. Foreign countries were unwilling to invest in a communist state.
2.
· More food had to be produced, both to feed the growing industrial population and to provide a surplus of export.
· The surplus of export would bring in foreign capital and profits for investment of industry
· The primitive agricultural system which was allowed to continue under NEP was incapable of providing such resources.
b) The approach: the Five Year Plans and collectivization
Stalin had no economic experience but he did not hesitate to start some dramatic changes that would overcome the problems in the shortest possible time.
Both industry and agriculture was taken under government control and NEP was abandoned
Stalin said (31’): we are 50 or 100 years behind other countries, we must take this distance in the next 10 years
The Five Year Plan
· Industrial expansion was tackled by a series of Five Year Plans, the first two were said to have been completed a year before schedule (28-32 and 33-37), although they did not reach the target.
· The first plan was concentrated on heavy industry (coal, iron, steel, oil and machinery as tractors). These were scheduled to triple output
· The two later plans provided some increases in consumer goods and heavy industry
· The plans were remarkable. In 1940 USSR had overtaken Britain in iron and steel production (not yet in coal) and on her way to reach Germany
· Hundreds of factories were built, many of them in new towns east of Ural Mountains where they would be safer from invasion
How was this achieved?
The cash was provided almost entirely by the Russians themselves, with no foreign investment
The cash came from:
Grain exports
Charging peasants heavily for use of government equipment
Plowing back (återinvestera vinst) of all profits and surpluses
Hundreds of foreign technicians were brought in
Emphasis was placed on expanding education in colleges, factory schools and universities. This to provide skill workers
Differentials between skilled and unskilled workers, to encourage production
Life was very grim for most workers. There were severe punishments for bad workmanship. People were accused for being saboteurs when targets were not reached. This could send you in forced labor camps.
There were primitive housing conditions and food shortages as well. (because of the concentration on heavy industry)
By the mid 30s things were improving as benefits such as medical care, education and holidays with pay
Collectivization
This process dealt with problems of agriculture
The idea meant that small farms and holdings to the peasants should be merged to form large collective farms (kolkhoz) jointly owned by peasants. There were two main reasons for Stalin to do that:
The system of small farms was inefficient, whereas large farms, under state direction, and using tractors and combine harvesters, would vastly increase grain production.
He wanted to eliminate the prosperous peasants (kulaks) and NEP because they were considered enemies.
This policy was met with a lot of resistance in the countryside.
There was a problem. The landless laborers were no problem to collectivize. But all the peasants that owned any property at all (whether Kulaks or not) were hostile to the plan. To join, they had to be forced by armies of party members.
The armies urged poorer peasants to seize cattle and machinery from the kulaks to be handed over to the collectives.
When peasants refused to join they were shot or taken to labor camps.
When newly collectivized peasants tried to sabotage their system by producing only enough for their own needs, local officials insisted on seizing the required quotas.
Total grain production did not increase at all, sometimes even less. This led to famine in any areas during 32-33, especially in the Ukraine.
In one way Stalin could claim that collectivization was a success: it allowed greater mechanization that did achieve a substantial increase in production in 1937. On the other hand, so many animals were slaughtered that it was 1953 before livestock production recovered to the 1928 figure and the cost in human life and suffering was enormous.
16.3 Political and social problems and Stalin’s solutions
a) The problems
· Stalin felt that under his totalitarian regime, political and social activities must be controlled just as much as economic life.
· He wanted complete and unchallenged power and he became suspicious and intolerant of criticism
There was a growing opposition in the party; the Ryutin platform (32’) aimed to slow down industrialization, allow peasants to leave the collective farms and remove Stalin if necessary. Stalin wanted to eliminate criticism once for all.
A new constitution was needed to consolidate the hold of Stalin and the communist party over the whole country.
Social and cultural aspects of life need to be brought into line, so that he could harness them (utnyttja) to the service of the state
The non Russian parts of the country wanted to become independent but Stalin wanted to hold the Union together.
b) Stalin’s methods were typically dramatic
1. The Purges; There was a growing opposition in the party; the Ryutin platform (32’) aimed to slow down industrialization, allow peasants to leave the collective farms and remove Stalin if necessary. Stalin wanted to eliminate criticism once for all.
· The purges included that during the next four years hundreds of important officials were arrested, tortured, made to confess innocent crimes, (a good example is the plotting with the exiled Trotskij ) and forced to appear in series of “show trials”, in which people were found guilty and sentenced to death or sent to labor camps.
· Officials that were executed were: Ryutin (platform), Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin and Radek.
· Estimates argue that about 8 million innocent people ended up in labor camps.
· The purges were successful in eliminating possible leaders and in terrorizing the mass into obedience. The purges were bad because many of the best brains in the government, industry and army had now disappeared. This was extremely important because Russia had a low number of educated people, something that reduced progress.
A new constitution; a new constitution was needed to consolidate the hold of Stalin and the communist party over the whole country.
· In 36’ after much discussion, a new democratic constitution was introduced in which everyone was allowed to vote by secret ballot to choose members of national assembly known as Supreme Soviet.
The democracy was only an illusion: the constitution underlined the fact that Stalin and the party ran things, and though there was mention of freedom of speech, anybody who ventured to criticize Stalin was quickly purged.
3. Social and Cultural Policies; Social and cultural aspects of life need to be brought into line, so that he could harness them (utnyttja) to the service of the state
· Writers, artists and musicians were expected to produce works of realism glorifying soviet achievements. Anyone that did not conform or did not please Stalin was executed.
· Education was watched by secret police. It deteriorated into indoctrination. Something positive was that literacy increased, and was a great achievement
· Stalin tried to clamp down the Orthodox Church, but this was a failure because in the 40s more than the half of the population was till convinced believers.
4. Holding the Union together; the non Russian parts of the country wanted to become independent but Stalin wanted to hold the Union together.
· In 1914 the tsarist empire, contained many non Russian areas. Lenin was nice to most of them; he gave Finland independence for example. Other countries gained independence as well.
· Most countries that gained independence, after a while, turned out to be anti-Bolsheviks.
· Sine Lenin gained Stalin the Commissar of Nationalities post, Stalin decided that the new post tsarist states were too much of a threat, so he forced them to become part of Russia again.
· By 1925 there were 6 soviet republics: Russia itself, Transcaucasia (Georgia, Armenia and Azerbajdjan), the Ukraine, Belorussia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
· The Problem for Russia was that 48% of its population was non Russian and it would be difficult to hold them together under Moscow rule. Stalin adopted a two handed approach that worked successfully until Gorbachev.
a) National cultures and languages were encouraged and the republics had a certain amount of independence
b) It had to be clear that Moscow had the final word, and if necessary force would be used.
When the Ukraine communist party said that the collectivization was a failure, Moscow carried out a purge.
c) 1945-53
After the WW2 Stalin continued to rule the USSR for 8 years.
The western half of European Russia was totally devastated but Stalin did not let any relaxation of government controls.
The economy had to be reconstructed and the FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN was introduced (46’) and incredibly, in those circumstances, succeeded in restoring industrial production to its 1940’ levels.
Just before Stalin would start another set of purges, to the immense relief of his associates, he died (53’)
16.4 Was the Stalin approach necessary?
There are two major views about Stalin’s successes:
Stalin’s defenders, included many Russian historians, argued that the situation was so desperate that only the pressures of brute force could have produced such a rapid industrialization, together with the necessary food. For them the supreme justification is that thanks to Stalin the Russians could resist the Germans
The opposing view, claims that Stalin’s policies were superficially successful but in reality weakened Russia because:
a) High targets for industrial production placed unnecessary pressure on the workers and led to slipshod work and poor quality products
b) The brutal enforcement of collectivization vastly reduced the amount of meat available and made peasants so bitter that in the Ukraine the German invaders were welcomed
c) The purges slowed down economic progress by removing many of the most experienced men and almost caused military defeat during the first few month of the war by removing all the great generals
The final point is that many Marxists both inside and outside Russia claimed that Stalin betrayed the idealism of Marx and Lenin.
The Russian historian Roy Medvedev argues that Stalin should not get any credit at all because instead of a new classless society in which everybody was free and equal, ordinary workers and peasants were as exploited as they had been under the tsars. The party had taken the place of the capitalists and enjoyed all the privileges, best houses and cars.
Instead of Marxism, socialism and the dictatorship of the proletariat, there was merely Stalinism and the dictatorship of Stalin.
16.5 The Khrushchev era- 53à64
a) The rise of Khrushchev 53-57’
· After Stalin’s death the situation was similar to that after Lenin’s. there was no obvious leader
· The politburo was now called as the Praesidium decided to share power and rule as a group:
Malenkov became Chairman of the Council of Ministers;
Khrushchev became Party Secretary
Voroshilov became Chairman of the Praesidium
Beria became Chief of the Secret Police, Bulganin and Molotov
Khrushchev began to emerge as the dominant personality
Beria was executed because the others were afraid of him turning against them
Malenkov resigned after disagreeing with Khrushchev about industrial policies
Khrushchev’s position was strengthened even more when in an amazing speech (56’) he criticized Stalin’s policies, he criticized that:
a) condemned Stalin for encouraging the cult of his own personality instead of allowing the party rule
b) revealed details about Stalin’s purges of the 30’s and criticized his conduct of the war
c) claimed that socialism could be achieved in other ways that those Stalin used
d) suggested that peaceful co existence with the West was not possible but essential if nuclear war was to be avoided
· Molotov and Malenkov complained about this drastic speech that would encourage unrest. However as Party Secretary, as Stalin before, Khrushchev filled key positions with own supporters (e.g. the army) and then Molotov and Malenkov found themselves retired (June 57’)
· He did not have as much power as Stalin. He and the Central Committee of the party that ruled Russia and it was the Central Committee that voted Khrushchev out in 64’.
b) Khrushchev’s problems and policies
· In spite of the recovery under the last years, there were still a number of major problems:
The low standard of living among the industrial and agricultural workers
Inefficiency of agriculture, which did not provide Russia’s needs
· Khrushchev was aware of this fact, so he considered that a general de-Stalinization policy would solve some problems.
Industrial policy
· Industry continued to be organized under Five Year Plans, but firstly they were concentrated more on light industries, producing consumer goods (radios, TV sets, washing machines etc.), just to raise living standards
· To reduce over centralization and encourage efficiency, 100 Regional Economic Council were set up to make decisions about and organize their local industries. Managers were encouraged to make profits rather then meeting quotas and wages depended on output
· This led to an improvement of living standards in 58’. However, USSR, as Khrushchev confessed, was far behind USA in the production of housing production, but soon the difference would be covered.
· An important technological progress was the first manned orbit of the earth by Gagarin (61’)
2. Agriculture Policy
· In agriculture the increase of food production raised
· Khrushchev started for the first time the virgin land schemes (54’, this would cultivate huge areas in Siberia and Kazakhstan. These peasants would be allowed to keep or sell crops from private land. The government increased its payments for the crops from collectives, in order to provide incentives to produce more.
· After a period of increased grain production, in 63’ grain output was down to 10 million mainly because of the failure of the virgin land scheme.
· The trouble was that the biggest part of the land was of bad quality, not enough fertilizers were used. In general there was still too much interference in agriculture from party officials and it remained the least efficient sector of the economy.
· The Russians had to rely on grain imports, often from the USA.
3. Political changes
· The thaw included to return to party control instead of Stalin’s personality cult, a reduction in secret police activities, and more freedom for ordinary people, more tourism, and a slight relaxation of press controls.
4. Foreign affairs
· Khrushchev aimed for a peaceful co existence and seemed prepared to allow different roads to socialism among the satellites. The departure from strict Marxist ideas (including his encouragement of profit and wage incentives) laid him open to Chinese accusations of revisionism.
· He proved this when Poland and Hungary tried to beak down Russian control, and Khrushchev’s tolerance was shown.
c) Khrushchev’s fall
· In October 1964 the Central Committee of the party voted Khrushchev into retirement on the grounds of ill health, although his health was good.
· The real reasons were probably:
The failure of his agricultural policy (they have not been worse the others)
The loss of prestige over the Cuban missile crisis
The widening breach with China, which he made no attempt to heal
His colleges were tired of his extrovert personality
16.6 The USSR stagnates
a) The Brezhnev era
· After Khrushchev’s, three men Kosygin, Brezhnev and Podgorny seemed to be sharing power.
· First, Kosygin was the leading figure and the chief spokesman of foreign affairs, while Brezhnev and Podogorny looked after home affairs
· Kosygin pressed for more decentralization over economic policies, but this was very unpopular with other leaders that said that this would give too much independence of thought in the satellite states
· Brezhnev became leader (just he) in 77 until his death in 82. .
· Broadly speaking his policy was similar to Khrushchev’s.
1. Economic policies
· Economic policies maintained wage differentials and profit incentives (handlings stimulering) and some growth to take place but the rate was slow.
· The system remained strongly centralized and Brezhnev reluctant to change anything
· The production of harvest in 81 was a disaster. By this time much of Russian industry was old fashioned and in need of new production and processing technology. The building industry was also extremely low
· Because of this, USSR was depended on American wheat. In 1980 an American agricultural worker produced enough to feed 70 people, while in Russia only enough for ten people.
2. The Eastern Block
The Eastern Block was expected to obey Moscow’s rule
When liberal threads developed in Czechoslovakia, the Russian and the Warsaw Pact troops attacked the country and removed the Dubcek government with a pro-Moscow regime
The Brezhnev Doctrine was built. This would involve the intervention in internal affairs in any communist country that was under threat. The invasion in Afghanistan was the most blatant application of the doctrine
Romania refused to be part of the invasion of Czechoslovakia because they wanted to maintain good relations with China
3. Human rights
Brezhnev’s record on human right was not impressive, though he claimed to be in favor of the Helsinki agreement and he appeared to make improvements, but in fact little progress was made
Groups were set up to check if the terms of the agreement were kept, but they were met with exiles, imprisonments, arrests and deportations by the authorities. These groups were even dissolved (82’)
4. Foreign Policies
The Russians worked against détente, but after 79’ relations with the West deteriorated, this because of the invasion in Afghanistan
Short after that he increased the aid in Cuba, offered aid to Angola, Mozambique and Ethiopia and increased the armed forces, in particularly the navy and the new SS-20 missiles.
b) Andropov and Chernenko
After Brezhnev’s death Russia was ruled shortly by two elderly and ailing politicians (Andropov, Nov 82’-Feb 84’) and (Chernenko Feb 84- March 85’)
Andropov head of KGB until May 82, he:
He introduced a campaign of making Russia more efficient and to modernize it.
He began an anti corruption drive and introduced a program of economic reform, hoping to increase production by encouraging
He replaced old party officials with young men.
· Died because of illness
· Chernenko was 72 years old and has not succeeded with the human rights. He held Sakharov in exile.
· Members of an unofficial trade union, supporters of a group for the establishment of trust between the USA and the USSR, and members of an unofficial religious groups were all arrested
16.7 Gorbachev and the end of communist rule
· Came to power at the age of 54, was the most dynamic leader Russia had seen for many years.
· He was determined to transform and revitalize the country after all the policies.
· He intended to achieve this by modernizing and streamlining the communist party with the new policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring- economic and social reform) REFORM= FÖRBÄTTRING TILL DET BÄTTRE
This made an impact on foreign affairs on détente, relations with China, a withdrawal from Afghanistan and ultimately the ending of the Cold War.
· Gorbachev outlined what was wrong in a speech in 88’. The system was to centralized, leaving no room for local individual initiative. It was based on state ownership and control and weighted strongly towards defense and heavy industry, leaving consumer goods for ordinary people in short supply.
· He did not want to end communism, he wanted to replace the Stalinist system, with a socialist system that was humane and democratic. He had more success abroad the at home.
· His policies failed to provide results quickly enough, and led to the collapse of communism, the breakup of the USSR and the end of his own political career.
a) Gorbachev’s new policies
1. Glasnost
This was soon seen in areas such as human rights and cultural affairs. Several well known dissidents were released and the Shakarovs were allowed to return to Moscow from Gorky.
Leaders like Bukharin were declared innocent of against all the crimes. Pravda (in west known as the communist voice; it was the newspaper of the Central Committee of party) was allowed to publish criticisms against Brezhnev’s unfair attitude towards the dissidents.
Important political events were televised.
______________________
· In cultural matters, the film makers were allowed to make films against Stalin and all the earlier anti Stalin materiel was released
· There was a new freedom of news reporting, this because:
Use the media to publicize the inefficiency and corruption which the government was so anxious to stamp about
Educate public opinion
Mobilize support for the new policies
· Nobody was allowed to criticize the party itself
2. Economic affairs
· Gorbachev announced that 1987 would be the year for broad applications of the new methods of economic management
· Co Operatives to a maximum of 50 workers would be allowed (family restaurants, making clothes, TV or car repairs). This policy was created because:
1. To provide competition for the slow and inefficient services of the state, in the hope of stimulating a rapid economy
2. The need to provide alternative employment changed over the following decade: as more automation and computerization are introduced in factories and in offices, the need for manual work decreases.
3. The responsibility for quality control throughout industry as a whole was to be taken over by independent state bodies rather than factory management
The most important part of the reforms was the Law on Ste Enterprises (June 87) that removed the central planners’ total control over raw materials, production quotas and trade and made factories work to orders from customers.
3. Political changes
This began in January 87 when Gorbachev announced that he moves towards democracy within the party.
Instead of members of local soviets being appointed by the local communist party, they were to be elected by the people and there was to be a choice of candidates (not of parties) ; There were to be secret elections for top party positions and elections in factories to choose managers.
During 1988 dramatic changes in central government were achieved.
In May 89 the first Congress of People’s Deputies met. During the second session (December 89), it was decided that the reserved seats for the communist party should be abolished. Gorbachev was elected President of the Soviet Union (March 90), with 2 councils to advise him. 1 was his adviser, the other 1 contained representatives from the 15 satellite states
This system sidelined the old system, the communist party was on the verge to lose its privileged position
b) What went wrong with Gorbachev’s policies?
1. Opposition from radicals and conservatives
· As the reforms got underway, Gorbachev ran into problems
· Party leaders as Boris Yeltsin were more radical that Gorbachev and thought that the reforms were not drastic enough. They wanted to change to a western style market economy as soon as possible, though they knew that this would give short termed difficulties to the Russians
· The conservatives (the large majority), on the other hand, felt that the changes were too drastic
· Glasnost that encouraged the people to voice their criticism was now in full flow, and was beginning to turn against the communist party.
· This and other factors caused a dangerous split in the party and made it difficult for Gorbachev to satisfy either group.
2. The economic reforms did not produce results quickly enough
· In 90’ the national income actually fell and continued to fall, by about 15% by 91. Some economics think that USSR was going through an economic crisis as serious as the one in the US in the mid 30’s.
· The problem was that wages were now dependent on output, but since output was measured in roubles, factories were tempted not to increase overall output, but to concentrate on more expensive goods and reduce output of cheaper goods. This lead to higher wages, forcing the factories to produce more money causing inflation
· This led to major protests. The miners in USSR’s largest coalmining areas started a strike (1/2 million were on strike). They organized miners put forward 42 demands; better living and working conditions, better supplies for food, a share in the profits, more local control over the mines and later on, influenced by Poland, demanded own trade unions. The government granted many of the demands as full control over the mines. But still, by the end of 89, a quarter of the population leaved below the poverty line.
· Gorbachev was losing control and the miners encouraged even more radicals
3. Nationalist pressures
The nationalism, the glasnost and the perestroika encouraged the 14 satellite states to hope for more and more power from Moscow.
a) A fight occurred between Azerbajdjan and Armenia over an area called Nagorno, Gorbachev could do nothing about this since the conservative view. This created the loss of power of Moscow
b) The Baltic States, influenced by the rest of Eastern Europe, simply declared itself independent (Lithuania), and the other two soon followed. Moscow refused to recognize their independence
c) Yelstin that was excluded from the new supreme soviet by the conservatives, made a dramatic comeback and was elected president of the Russian republic in may 1990
4. Gorbachev and Yelstin were now bitter rivals and they disagreed on many fundamental issues
a) Yeltsin thought that the satellites should have the right to decide of they want to be part of the USSR or not and they would still have, if they are a part, some responsibilities to USSR. Gorbachev disagreed saying that this would cause disintegration
b) Yeltsin was disillusioned with the communist party and with the conservatives and how they treated him. He thought that the party no longer had the privilege to exist, while Gorbachev was still a convinced communist that thought that a humane democratic communism would be great.
c) Yeltsin thought also that the answer was a rapid changeover to market economy and he knew that this would be painful for the Russians. Gorbachev was still cautious, realizing that a possible market economy would cause a disaster in the country. He was aware of how unpopular he was.
c) The Coup of August 91
As the crisis began Yeltsin and Gorbatchev tried to work together, and Gorbatchev felt himself being pushed towards free multy party elections.
As several Eastern European states wanted independence, in a speech Gorbachev announced that the remained satellite states had the right to be independent of Moscow. This agreement would be signed the 20th August 91’. The conservatives now were angry and organized a coup; during his vacation Gorbachev was arrested and held under household. Meantime, Yeltsin reigned from the communist party and now the communists surrounded Moscow with tanks. Yelstin succeeded to announce the coup in public, and now as a hero, he was the leader of Federation of Russia. And the coup leaders got arrested (21 Aug).
This meant that:
The communist party was disgraced and discredited. The party was banned in the Russian Federation. Gorbachev resigned as party secretary.
Yeltsin was considered the hero, while Gorbachev was sidelined. Yeltsin ruled the Russian federation, introducing programs for free market economy. The Ukraine gained independence and the USSR was over.
Yelstin negotiated for a new union of republics. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was joined by Belorussia and the Russian Federation, the Ukraine + 8 other republics (8 Dec 81’). They were fully independent but they would work together on economic matters and defense.
These developments meant that Gorbachev’s role as president still existed, so on the Christmas Day 91, he resigned
d) Verdict on Gorbachev
· Despite his failures, he was one of the most outstanding leader
· His achievements in foreign affairs were enormous. His policies of glasnost and perestroika restored freedom to the people. His policies of reducing militarily expenditure, détente and withdrawal from Afghanistan and Eastern Europe
· People say that he is the real successor of Lenin
· The communism survived in China but not on the USSR because the Chinese introduced economic reforms first and leaving the power of the communist power unchanged. This meant that even if people suffered economic hardship, the government retained tight control over them, and in the last resort was prepared to use violence against them. In USSR Gorbachev believed that all the reforms could be obtained simultaneously (government and economic). He first tried to achieve political reform and then economic reform without any really economic fundamental innovations
· 1991 did not bring about the death of communism, but it killed the Stalinism. In several countries reformed communist parties re merged, sometimes under different names.
e) Russia after Gorbachev
· Yelstin was faced by the same problem as Gorbatchev, to transform Russia into a market economy by privatizing the inefficient, support financially state industries and agriculture.
· Yelstin was very popular but he had to keep his promises about the living standards. During 92 and 93 the economy was still in decline and the people lived worse than under glasnost and perestroika.
· Russia started a new conflict with the Chechens who wanted to regain independence.
· During the first half of 1996 the economy started to show signs of recover, inflation decreased and production increased
· Elections were due in June 96’. And the members of the Commonwealth were afraid, also because Yeltsin’s competition with Zyuganov, that a former communist leader would gain the power again. In the election they and the International Monetary Fund backed Yeltsin (a loan of 10 million dollars)
· He received even more support when he succeeded to negotiate cease fire with Chechenia and doing so won with 3% against Zyuganov. The people were afraid, because of Yeltsin’s health, that he would not complete his mandate.
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