Chapter 1
The European Peace Settlement 1814-15
The collapse of Napoleon’s Empire
In 1814, the climax of the French era began to end. For more then 2 decades, also under Napoleon, France dominated Europe
The tide was now turning.
During the winter of 1812, Napoleon was defeated in Russia, in June he lost the Iberian possessions and in October 1813, he was defeated, by the Allies, in Leipzig
1 April 1814 Paris was overthrown
The Abdication of Napoleon
After the Allies victory in Paris, Napoleon acknowledged defeat and offered to abdicate
The French people called on Xavier of France, brother of the last king and after him the other members of the Bourbon in the old order
Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, the Allies began to restructure Europe in an effort to secure a just and lasting peace
The Principal Decision-makers (powers) The Principal Objectives
Britain To secure peace
Russia Contain France
Austria Restore the balance of power
Prussia
The Napoleonic Empire
Dependent states within the Napoleonic Empire (under direct control of the French)
a) Rhine Confederation
b) Switzerland
c) Grand Duchy of Warsaw
d) Kingdom of Naples
e) Kingdom of Italy
f) Spain
The settlement of France
· Between April 1814 and November 1815, the Allied determined to arrange the new Europe
· Three stages of the settlement are important:
I. The First Peace of Paris (May 1814)
II. The Treaty of Vienna (June 1815)
III. The Second Peace of Paris (November 1815)
The First Peace of Paris, May 1814
The most important decisions were about the fate of France
The Peace was lenient (skonsamt)
France restored to the frontiers of 1792 and accepted termination of all claims over Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland and Germany
Britain received the former French colonies: Santa Lucia, Tobago and the Isle of France
No indemnity (skadestånd)
The French were allowed to keep the treasures taken under Napoleon
To the First Peace there were a number of secret articles appended. They contained proposals for disposing the confiscated territory.
a) For example; at Britain’s insistence, Belgium was added to Holland (Belgium called before the Austrian Netherlands).
b) Prussia was to be allowed territory in the Rhineland and to increase influence in Northern Italy
c) In addition, the French had to agree with a new independent Switzerland
This lenient Peace of Paris, was not a product of the international benevolence, but a deliberate manoeuvre by the Allies to ensure an enduring period of peace and repose in Europe
You can claim that The First Peace of Paris was either revenge on the country or as establishing the greatest possible equilibrium between powers!
The Second Peace of Paris, November 1815
In march 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and renewed the war against the Allies
He was defeated after 100 days at Waterloo on 18th June 1815
He was put in exile again, this time on the isle of S:t Helena, where he remained until he died of stomach cancer in 1821.
The arrival of Napoleon invalidated the First Peace of Paris
This was a harder punishment then the first
The Bourbons were restored and an Allied army of occupation was imposed
The frontiers of France were reduced to those of 1790 (not 1792 like before)
An indemnity of 700 million francs was demanded and stolen works began to return to their original places
The Congress of Vienna
(June 1815 &before the Second Peace of Paris)
5 months BEFORE Napoleon escaped, the sovereigns, statesmen and nobility of Europe began to congregate in Vienna
This was due to Article 32 of The First Treaty of Paris, which made the provision to settle the European state system
In 6 month (November 1814-May 1815) it held 41 sessions where work was done
The culmination of these meetings was the signing of The Treaty of Vienna, 9 June 1815 which settled the main issues affecting Central and Eastern Europe
5 nations dominated these procedures and they were called the Peacemakers: Russia, Britain, France, Austria and Prussia
These 5 nations were bound together by certain broad principles and national ambitions/interests
1.2 The aims of the peacemakers
Castlereagh:
British Foreign Secretary 1812-1822 and chief British representative at the Congress at Vienna
His aim was to establish a just equilibrium in Europe
With that aim he wanted to serve the particular needs of British commerce. As an
island power, Britain had no territorial ambitions in continental Europe
He was determined to resist the claims of land of Tsar Alexander of Russia
He wished to contain France and to prevent a new French coup in Europe. He was sure that any challenge to the peace in Europe would come either from Russia or France
He wished a strong independent Central Europe deigned to resist aggression from both east and west. He even thought that Prussia and Austria would be bale to do that together
Talleyrand
Formerly Napoleon’s Foreign Minister, 1799-1807
Wanted to secure the restoration of Louis 18 and the King’s representative at the Congress
He wanted to secure Europe the powers that France wanted nothing more than she possessed.
But, he was ready to defend the French interests and they should be recognized by the Congress and that France would be restored to an equal footing with the other European Powers.
He opposed the Russian claims in Poland
Did not wish to see Prussia strengthen its power on the eastern frontier of France
Legitimacy, he believed that the rightful leaders should be restored to their thrones
Tsar Alexander of Russia:
Tsar of Russia from 1801 to 1825
The only sovereign among the Great Powers to represent personally the interests of the country at Vienna
He was prepared to use the Congress to pursue the traditional Russian foreign policy, the westward expansion. à the complete absorption of Poland
He was prepared to deprive Austria and Prussia of the Polish lands, which they’ve got in the 18th century
Metternich of Austria
Austrian Foreign Minister 1809-21 and principal representative of the Austrian Empire at the Congress.
Like Castlereagh, Metternich was interested in a just equilibrium between states
Hoped to see France and Russia confined to their ancient frontiers
Was interested in obtaining security for Austria against the westward Russian expansion
He believed in the creation of a strong Central Europe and saw Austria as the logical leader
He wished to re assert Austrian authority over the Italian states
Was against nationalism and Liberalism
Hardenberg of Prussia
· Chancellor since 1810
· Prussia was a rising power in 1825 but was not well placed to make particular demands at the congress
· Napoleon’s actions left Prussia in ruins. The Prussians dedicated to recovery and this is what Hardenberg by achieving by expending Prussian territory in Germany
· Hardenberg, affected by the cooperation of the King William and the Tsar, was not prevented from demanding Saxony as compensation for the possible transfer of Prussian Poland to the Tsar.
General Principles
Beside all the specific aims and ambitions there were some general agreement about the nature of the final settlement
a) The Balance of Power
· This was an ideal state system where no single power was able to exercise influence or control over the others
· There were different perspectives of the equilibrium:
àFor Britain, it meant a state system which contained France within her historic frontiers
àFor Austria, it meant a state system which gave them predominance in Central Europe, defended them from the Russians and increased influence in the German Courts.
àFor Russia, it meant a system that they could take benefit of and to fulfil their foreign policies
b) A Lasting Peace
They wanted to create a system which could offer security from a future war
They wanted to return to the peace time which was before
b) Compensation
It was not mentioned at Vienna
This principle was implicit in the negotiating positions taken by the statesmen as they discussed the territorial re shaping of Europe
The First Peace of Paris compensated Holland with Belgium à former Austrian land
Austria, hoped to be compensated in Italy
Prussia wished absorption of her Polish lands
Britain achieved compensation through the acquisition of colonial bases
c) Legitimacy
This was concerned to restore legitimate rulers
It was most applied to the French Bourbons
d) Containment
In order to obtain a lasting peace, the statesmen at Vienna wanted to obtain security against the French
They were afraid that France, once again, would invade and disrupt Europe
The work of the Congress
The Congress of Vienna began in dispute.
Under the terms of a secret article of the First Peace of Paris, the 4 great Powers of the Quadruple Allies decided to decide the future European system
This agreement excluded Minor Powers and significant nations such as Portugal, Spain and Sweden and France, which was still a Great Power
France gathered the Minor powers together and created the Committee of Eight (The Big Four + France, Portugal, Spain and Sweden). He did this to direct the proceedings at Vienna
Through that, he obtained the admission of France in the discussions of the Big Four, now transformed into the Big Five
At this point he abandoned the Minor Powers and tried to pursuit their interests
Poland and Saxony
The Polish Saxon was the biggest issue at the Congress
Tsar Alexander wanted to absorb this area. He clearly claimed: Poland is mine! There can be little negotiation with 600 000 men
Alexander wanted to compensate Prussia; he offered them Saxon in compensation for the loss of the Polish territory
Castlereagh and Metternich resisted immediately
These two leaders were worried about the extension of Prussia and Russia
Castlereagh was sabotaging Alexander’s Polish-Saxon proposals
Castlereagh feared and felt that Prussia and Russia could cooperate and then a balanced Central Europe would be impossible
Britain felt fear about a possible cooperation between Russia and Prussia, so he offered Saxony to Prussia in exchange of full cooperation with Austria and Britain against Russia
This happened. The three nations encountered, but unfortunately, Alexander ordered his friend, Frederick William, to abandon the plan. The leader of Prussia commended this to Hardenberg, which was force to abandon the secret plan
Talleyrand did not accept the idea of Polish absorption by the Russians and was even worried about the consolidation of Prussian power in Germany. He therefore decided to work with Britain and Austria
On 3rd January 1815 the Triple Alliance was built. This provided mutual assistance if any of the 3 powers were attacked. Alexander began to soften his ideas about the Polish territories (may have been because the huge opposition)
The final settlement was a compromise. Russia gained 3/5 of Saxony, Poland became an independent state under Russia and had own constitution. Other Polish territories were re-linked to Austria or Prussia
The Cordon Sanitair
Following the conclusion of the Polish-territory solution, many ideas about other territorial powers came about
Rapid progress was made regarding Netherlands, the German states, Italy and Switzerland. This had important consequences for France, who felt herself contained by hostile states.
The Big Powers assured that the new states (The Cordon Sanitair) would be unprotected
The Cordon States can be understood as the neighbour countries of France, they were:
Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, France, Netherlands, Bavaria, Württernberg, Baden, Switzerland, Lombardy, Venetia, Kingdom of Sardinia, Tuscany, Sardinia, Luxembourg, Parma and Modena
The Netherlands
· Holland was united with the Belgium (Austrian Netherlands) and formed the Kingdom of Netherlands
· This, under the King of Holland
· Britain supplied 2 million £ for the construction of defensive fortresses along the Franco-Dutch border
· The King of Holland also gained the Duchy of Luxembourg
Hanover
Had strong connections with Britain
Prussia
Given extensive territory in the Rhineland and expected to stronghold the area with a large number of troops
Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden
Incorporated as a part of the new German Confederation. This consisted of 39 independent units (including Prussia) under the presidency of Austria
Switzerland
Consisted as an independent state. Her neutrality was guaranteed by the Big Five
Lombardy, Venetia
They were merged together as a kingdom under the rule of Austria
Kingdom of Sardinia
An enlarged Piedmont incorporating Sardinia, Savoy, Nice and Genoa
Tuscany
Given to the brother of Austrian Emperor. The two minor Italian states, Parma and Modena, were also placed in the hands of the Austrian Habsburgs
Chapter 2
The Congress System: Great Power Diplomacy 1815-1830
The Congress System: myth or reality?
Great Power Cooperation
The term is claimed, by some, not have been existed
Lee claims:
The Concert of Europe, both terms used to describe various attempts made by the major powers to cooperate, after 1815, in setting possible causes of conflict between themselves in order to prevent the possibility of another large-scale war.
The Congress System and the Concert of Europe; both terms apply to the period of attempted cooperation among the Major Powers following the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars.
The basic idea behind this cooperative venture was that, having defeated France trough concerted effort, the Powers might best maintain the peace they created at Vienna trough sustained cooperation
Initially this collaborative exercise was conducted through the medium of periodic meetings known as Congresses, 4 such Congresses were held ;
a) at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818:
b) Troppau 1820
c) Laibach 1821
d) Verona 1822
· Such meetings gave rise to the term ‘Congress System’ and were an ambitious attempt to conduct international diplomacy across the conference table
· During the 1820’s the Congress System collapse because:
1) Britain refused to attend the meetings, believing that the original purpose of the cooperative process had been betrayed by the powers who sought to use their combined strength for selfish ends
2) Those powers which remained Austria, Russia and Prussia were subject of their rivalries and found it difficult to co-operate effectively on issues which faced them
Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance
The success of Great Power cooperation, first in the war against French and then during the peacemaking process at Vienna, led the statesmen to end that great benefits could be derived (gained) from similar cooperation in peacetime
During the latter of 1815 2 documents appeared which gave expression and desire for continues cooperation
The first of these emerged from Alexander, encouraged by the religious zealot Baroness von Krüdner.
Alexander looked to involve his fellow sovereigns in a moral and spiritual association based on Christian principles. The results was the Holly Alliance
The Holly Alliance was signed by most European sovereigns with the exception of Sultan, the Pope and the Prince Regent (the British said that the constitution did not permit that)
Metternich
The Holy Alliance was not founded to restrain the rights of the people nor to encourage absolutism and tyranny in any form. It was simply the expression of the mystical sentiments of the Tsar and the application if Christian principles to politics.
Firstly only Alexander took the Holy Alliance in serious
Castlereagh and Metternich joined not to offend the Tsar
However, as revolutionary outbreaks began to disturb the European peace after 1820, the Alliance was redefined and directed against those who would dare to challenge the existing political order
After 1815 then, there were 2 rival alliances each with the declared purpose of promoting international cooperation. However, both were vague when it came to defending their precise functions and the scope of their operations. This lack of clarity proved to be one of the major causes of the Congress System’s demise
The Powers divide 1815-1818
The powers lost the unifying feelings, also because of the present position of Napoleon
The years after 1815 the mood of international co operation began to recede as the powers looked to align themselves with one or other of the contenders for European supremacy.
Powers Alignment 1815-1820
The dominant powers in Europe after 1815. Both aspired to direct and control the affairs of the new Europe. They had little in common; their only real shared aim was the desire to keep France in her control
Britain
Her main concern was with her economy, she maintained an unrivalled navy to protect her global commerce
Wished to see peace in Europe so they were against the ambitions of Russia
She was not concerned about the manner of which the peace was maintained. The most important thing was her economy to flourish
Austria à Britain
As the central anchor of the newly constructed Europe, and had cause to fear both France and Russia
Metternich favoured close relations with Britain as her security against the threat from east and west
She was believed to approve and join the idea of restrain the Russians, and this through The quadruple alliance
Did not wish to see close relations between Russia and France
Therefore looked to keep good relations with Russia- a difficult and sometimes impossible task
Russia
(Cooperated with Prussia and France)
Was Anti Britain’s policies and thought that Russia was in a secondary role in post war affairs
Aware of the Anglo-Austrian co operation and looked to align with other Powers (notably France) to break their control of the Alliance
Prussia àRussia
Fearful of a French attack, particularly across her new Rhine territories
For security, she looked primarily to Russia with whom close links had been forged during the war and at Vienna
Also favoured the idea of closer ties between Austria and Russia, which would result in a powerful cooperation against France
France àRussia
Aware of her position looked for an ally to assist her revising at the Vienna settlement
Saw in France, a good possibility and a partnership against France
The Congress of Aix la Chapelle (1818)
· The main instrument of the Quadruple Alliance was a Council of Ambassadors which met weekly in Paris
· Their task was to regulate French domestic affairs and were especially concerned with supervising the Allied army of occupation and ensuring that the war was indemnity was paid
· With a common and limited function they have come, by 1818, able to review the relationship between France and the Allies, This was the declared purpose of this Congress
· Before the Congress, it was decided to withdraw the occupation army in France and this decision was formalized here.
· Russia wanted France here
· Britain and Austria were aware of this fact and thus made a new alliance named the Quintuple Alliance from now on Congress diplomacy was to be conducted by FIVE POWERS.
· Here the nations revealed the poor aspects for future international cooperation as the search for common ground proved fruitless
· The Tsar raised the idea of disarmament but was unable to find Consensus (accord, compromise) on the issue. He also called for the creation of an international army to protect Europe’s existing frontiers. Another of his ideas was the creation of a general union of sovereigns sworn to act against revolution. All proposals were rejected
· The Alliance looked very fragile
Revolution: redefining the Congress System
In 1820 and 1821 revolutionary outbreaks occurred in several parts in Europe
The different responses to these revolutions effects on Congress diplomacy and led to a reshaping of the Great Power alignments
Revolutions in Europe (1820-21)
Piedmont 1821
Revolt inspired the uprising in Naples
King Victor Emanuel was forced to abdicate
Replaced by Albert who granted a constitution, but was opposed by his brother Felix who called on Austria to crush the revolt
Naples 1820
The revolutionary group the Carbonari directed the uprising
The rebels demanded a new constitution
King Ferdinand was forced to accept
Spain 1820
Part of the army protested
Ferdinand 6th was forced to change the constitution
Portugal 1820
Revolution led by army
Constitution was remade. The old one since 1812 was proclaimed
________________________________________________________________________
News of the revolution alarmed Metternich
Feared revolutions as much as French invasion
Decided to control and crush the possible revolution
The Tsar feared revolutions too. He allied with France and Austria to keep down possible revolutions
Castlereagh rejected this idea and did not accept the Alliance to be used in this way and did not want to intervene in external problems
At the Congress of Troppau, the problem of intervention in case of revolution was discussed. Britain did not agree and the idea of Congress diplomacy and the Congress System began to expire
Troppau and Laibach
Here the divisions within the Alliance was signalled, as the officers of Britain and France refused to send official delegations
Instead observers were present
The Troppau Protocol, proclaimed by Austria, Russia and Prussia was rejected by Britain and France, the new power alignments began to take shapes
After a adjournment (suspension) the powers met in Laibach where it was agreed by the 3 eastern states that Austria should dispatch an army to Naples to crush the revolution
During March 1921 Austrian soldiers stamped the whole Carbonari revolt and restored King Ferdinand to his throne.
The same thing happened in Piedmont and other Italian state
Castlereagh agreed Austrian intervention in Naples as a domestic concern, he objected to her doing so in Italy or anywhere elsewhere in the name of Alliance
This was the fundamental issue which split the Quadruple Alliance and which led to collapse of the Congress System
Greece, Spain and the Congress of Verona
In Greece, there a revolt against the Moslem Revolt was about to begin
Metternich feared that the Tsar would support his fellows Orthodox against the Moslems and with the help of this, extend the Russian territory
The Turkish brutal response to the uprising, led to an increased Russian support
But the Tsar was convinced and influenced by Metternich not to offer support to the Greeks
In Spain the uprising developed to a Civil War. The Russians and French wanted to intervene. Metternich agreed that a Congress would be held in Italy in 1822 to discuss the issue. Before the Congress, Castlereagh committed suicide
The new foreign secretary was George Canning. He opposed no commitment (promise) to the collective diplomacy of the Congress System and believed : Every nation for itself
Canning sent Wellington to Verona with instructions drawn up by Castlereagh before his death
Canning was anti Congress System and he did not feel regret at the collapse of the Congress System, he felt relief
By the end of September 1823, King Ferdinand was restored.
The French were Prompted (encouraged) by Austria, Prussia and Russia
The world became dependent to British trade, as the French promised the British not to help the Spanish to help them recapture the colonies in South America (Polignac Memorandum)
Canning was determined to protect his trade, so in 1825 he recognized the independence of Mexico, Colombia and Argentina
Canning
Became British Foreign Minister Secretary for the second time in 1822
He had first occupied the position in 1807
He was a gifted speaker and because of disagreements between him and Castlereagh, he remained out of the Cabinet until 1816
Was anti congresses
Canning was seen by the other Allies as a champion of liberal and constitutional causes. However this was not the case. He detested the Portuguese revolutionaries
Britain’s association with the liberal and constitutional causes was not due to ideological commitment, but to the calculation that such contacts best suited British interests
The relations between Canning and Metternich were very bad and mutual.
In the period after 1922, under Canning, moved further away from her original Alliance partners
Old problems, new solutions: European diplomacy (1824-30)
Although it can be claimed that the diplomacy ended to a large extent at Verona, attempts were continued to organize international responses to events deemed to be threatening to European stability
Alexander died in1825 and was succeeded by Nicholas 1.
He was remote (distant) from the Quadruple and
Had no part in its creation or activities.
He did not want to be controlled by Metternich and
Responded immediately to the Muslim attack against the Greeks
In 1826 Canning intervened in the affairs in Portugal where he had a considerable influence. He sent troops to protect the constitutionalists. He refused to cooperate with the other powers about Portugal-issue. He emphasized Britain’s commitment to independent action in protection of their interests
Canning changed his policies and decided to cooperate with Russia in order to restrain (contain) Russian ambitions in Turkey. The British people were pro Greek rebels and Canning knew this. He wanted to end the Austro-Russo relations
In ST Petersburg Protocol 1826 was arranged between Tsar Nicholas 1 and Wellington called for the establishment of an independent Greece and intervention if this would not be possible
In 1827 the Moslems were still in power and Britain and France called fro cooperation with the other big powers to put an end to the Sultan’s control over Greece. France joined and the Treaty of London was signed
Prussia and Austria did not join and the powers were divided again
In August 1927 Canning died and was replaced by Wellington. Russia went to war against Turkey. Wellington being suspicious, withdrew from the Russo-Anglo cooperation
In 1829 at Adrianople peace was settled between Russia and Turkey and the Greek questioned was settled
By the London Protocol of 3rd February 1830, Greece was declared an independent state with its status guaranteed by the signatures of Britain, Russia and France
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